Calculated hardenability for improved consistency of properties in heat treatable engineering steels

Hardenability is one of the most important parameters controlling the heat treated properties of engineering steels. It affects the consistency of response for microstructure, hardness, strength, toughness, and dimensional change (distortion). This study illustrates that a major benefit of controlling hardenability is improving the consistency of dimensional distortion resulting from heat treatment. To facilitate the supply of steels to hardenability limits, especially restricted hardenability, a new technique was developed for the prediction of Jominy hardenability from chemical composition. The technique, termed the “Database Method,” uses measured Jominy hardenability and chemical composition data, contained in a database, to calculate the hardenability for a query composition. Using up to ten known steels, selected from the database with compositions closely matching that of the query steel, a small adjustment is made to the measured hardenability of each known steel allowing for the small difference in composition between the query and chosen steel. The final calculated result for the query steel is taken as the average of the various estimates. The basis of the Database Method is explained, and the advantages are illustrated for selecting engineering grades.     

Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane trisilanols as dispersants for titanium oxide nanopowder

Trisilanol isobutyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) was used to disperse nanosized titanium dioxide (TiO₂) particles in polypropylene (PP). The silanol groups of the POSS cage were bound to the surface of the TiO₂ particles, creating a layer of isobutyl POSS that improved compatibility with the PP matrix. POSS was an effective dispersant both when applied in a chemical pretreatment of TiO₂ and when simply added to the blend during melt compounding. The average particle size of TiO₂ was reduced from 70 nm for neat TiO₂ to 50 nm for the POSS/TiO₂ blend to 33 nm for TiO₂ chemically treated with POSS. Additionally, the POSS coating improved the color of the material and reduced the catalytic effect of TiO₂ on thermooxidative degradation. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2008     

Protection of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids against microbial hydrogenation in ruminants

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are normally hydrogenated by microorganisms in the rumen. Because of this hydrogenation ruminant triglycerides contain very low proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids. A new process is described whereby polyunsaturated oil droplets are protected from ruminal hydrogenation by encapsulation with formaldehyde-treated protein. The formaldehyde-treated protein resists breakdown in the rumen thereby protecting the fatty acids against microbial hydrogenation. When these protected oils are fed to ruminants the formaldehydeprotein complex is hydrolyzed in the acidic conditions of the abomasum and the fatty acids are absorbed from the small intestine. This results in substantial changes in the triglycerides of plasma, milk and depot fats, in which the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids is increased from 2–5% to 20–30%. These effects are observed in the plasma and milk within 24–48 hr of feeding while a longer period is necessary to alter the composition of sheep depot fat. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to human and ruminant nutrition.     

1,4,8,11,15,18,22,25-octasubstituted phthalocyanines: the contrasting effects of alkyl and alkoxy substituents on molecular self-assembly

The introduction of eight alkoxy or eight alkyl substituents onto the phthalocyanine (Pc) nucleus at the non-peripheral (1,4,8,11,15,18,22,25) positions produces derivatives which are soluble in a variety of organic solvents. However, other physico-chemical properties of the two series differ. Octa-alkyl derivatives, R₈ Pcs, pack as more ordered molecular assemblies in the solid state and show thermotropic liquid crystal behaviour with transition temperatures dependent upon substituent chain length and the central metal atom. In contrast, octa-alkoxy materials, (RO)₈ Pcs, melt directly into the isotropic liquid. The latter can be deposited as Langmuir-Blodgett films whereas the former cannot. Experiments with examples of the two series in which one or two of the chains are functionalized at the terminal positions with a hydrophilic moiety show that these amphiphilic analogues deposit well by the Langmuir-Blodgett method. A number of the films show a high degree of molecular ordering, as judged by X-ray reflectivity methods, transmission infrared, RAIRS and polarized optical spectroscopy. Results indicate that the type of ordering is controlled by the type of substituent and the length of the chain.     

Coalification paths of exinite,vitrinite and inertite

Coalification is a burial metamorphic process fundamental to understanding the origin and nature of coals and petroleum. Accurate assessment of Coalification requires removal of the variation in coal properties owing to differences in coal type. This is best achieved by assessing the coal rank of the maceral groups exinite, vitrinite and inertinite (and ultimately the macerals within each group) in terms of maximum reflectance. The mean maximum reflectances of exinite (R?_E max), vitrinite (R?_v max) and inertinite (R?_I max) are highly correlated over the rank range, soft brown coals to low-volatile bituminous coals. A single exinite Coalification break is identified at 0.4 to 0.5% R?_V max. Thereafter, exinite coalification occurs at an increasing rate (R?_E max relative to R?_V max) over the rank range 0.5–2.0% R?_V max, crossing the vitrinite Coalification path at 1.55% R?_V max. A phase of rapid inertinite Coalification (0.7–2.0% R?_I max) occurs between 0.2 and 0.9% R?_V max. Since exinite is a major land-plant source of hydrocarbons, and R?_E max is a sensitive indicator of organic maturation over the range 0.2–1.1% R?_E max, which corresponds to the main phase of oil generation, R?_E max can be a most useful indicator of petroleum generation. The inertinite lnkohlungsprung represents a dramatic compositional change which should be taken into account when considering the origin of inertinite, its utilization properties and the general processes of rank change and organic maturation.     

The accuracy of refractive and absorptive indices derived from reflectance measurements on low-reflecting materials

Errors in the refractive and absorptive indices derived from reflectance measurements on relatively low-absorbing organic substances in two media are discussed, with particular reference to coal macerals and cokes. Variation of errors in refractive and absorptive indices at different levels of reflectance, and the effect of different combinations of sign and magnitude of reflectance error on the two parameters, are presented in both tabulated form and as diagrams. The errors in the refractive and absorptive indices vary in relation to reflectance level, the reflectance difference between standard and unknown, the difference between the refractive indices of the unknown and the immersion oil and the wavelength of reflectance measurement within the visible spectrum. Despite the variation, it is possible to obtain useful values for the parameters within the low-absorbing range. If the absorption is negligible, it may not be possible to obtain realistic values for absorptive index, but even where this is the case, satisfactory values for refractive index can still be obtained. Suggestions are made on how to minimize reflectance errors and to increase the accuracy of dispersion curves for derived refractive and absorptive indices within the visible spectrum.     

Rater reliability and concurrent validity of the Keyboard Personal Computer Style instrument (K-PeCS)

This paper describes the inter-rater and intra-rater reliability, and the concurrent validity of an observational instrument, the Keyboard Personal Computer Style instrument (K-PeCS), which assesses stereotypical postures and movements associated with computer keyboard use. Three trained raters independently rated the video clips of 45 computer keyboard users to ascertain inter-rater reliability, and then re-rated a sub-sample of 15 video clips to ascertain intra-rater reliability. Concurrent validity was assessed by comparing the ratings obtained using the K-PeCS to scores developed from a 3D motion analysis system. The overall K-PeCS had excellent reliability [inter-rater: intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC)=.90; intra-rater: ICC=.92]. Most individual items on the K-PeCS had from good to excellent reliability, although six items fell below ICC=.75. Those K-PeCS items that were assessed for concurrent validity compared favorably to the motion analysis data for all but two items. These results suggest that most items on the K-PeCS can be used to reliably document computer keyboarding style.     

“Those found responsible have been sacked”: some observations on the usefulness of error

Erik Hollnagel’s body of work in the past three decades has molded much of the current research approach to system safety, particularly notions of “error”. Hollnagel regards “error” as a dead-end and avoids using the term. This position is consistent with Rasmussen’s claim that there is no scientifically stable category of human performance that can be described as “error”. While this systems view is undoubtedly correct, “error” persists. Organizations, especially formal business, political, and regulatory structures, use “error” as if it were a stable category of human performance. They apply the term to performances associated with undesired outcomes, tabulate occurrences of “error”, and justify control and sanctions through “error”. Although a compelling argument can be made for Hollnagel’s view, it is clear that notions of “error” are socially and organizationally productive. The persistence of “error” in management and regulatory circles reflects its value as a means for social control.     

An Integrated Approach to High Integrity Software Verification

Using automated reasoning techniques, we tackle the niche activity of proving that a program is free from run-time exceptions. Such a property is particularly valuable in high integrity software, for example, safety- or security-critical applications. The context for our work is the SPARK Approach for the development of high integrity software. The SPARK Approach provides a significant degree of automation in proving exception freedom. Where this automation fails, however, the programmer is burdened with the task of interactively constructing a proof and possibly also having to supply auxiliary program annotations. We minimize this burden by increasing the automation, through an integration of proof planning and a program analysis oracle. We advocate a ‘cooperative’ integration, where proof-failure analysis directly constrains the search for auxiliary program annotations. The approach has been successfully tested on industrial data.     

An observational comparison of the older and younger bus passenger experience in a developing world city

This study was an unobtrusive observational analysis of 333 older and younger bus passengers in Guadalajara, Mexico. A set of data were collected for each observed passenger, as well as more general observations related to driver behaviour, bus design and bus service characteristics. There were significant differences between older and younger passengers in terms of boarding and alighting times, use of handrails, seat location preferences, passenger stability and coping strategies in order to maintain postural stability. The conditions of travel are conducive to a poor passenger experience for the older passengers in particular. Although the problems may be attributed to bus design and driver behaviour typical of that in developing countries, they are also influenced by the wider transport infrastructure, and a lack of a regulatory regime which places drivers under time pressure and in direct competition with each other.

Practitioner Summary: Bus services must cater for all ages of passengers, including the elderly. This unobtrusive observational study investigated the passenger experience in a developing world city. Bus and wider service design were found to compromise the journey experience, with the older users being particularly negatively impacted. Design recommendations are provided.