The organization of biological sequences into constrained and unconstrained parts determines fundamental properties of genotype–phenotype maps

Biological information is stored in DNA, RNA and protein sequences, which can be understood as genotypes that are translated into phenotypes. The properties of genotype–phenotype (GP) maps have been studied in great detail for RNA secondary structure. These include a highly biased distribution of genotypes per phenotype, negative correlation of genotypic robustness and evolvability, positive correlation of phenotypic robustness and evolvability, shape-space covering, and a roughly logarithmic scaling of phenotypic robustness with phenotypic frequency. More recently similar properties have been discovered in other GP maps, suggesting that they may be fundamental to biological GP maps, in general, rather than specific to the RNA secondary structure map. Here we propose that the above properties arise from the fundamental organization of biological information into ‘constrained'' and ‘unconstrained'' sequences, in the broadest possible sense. As ‘constrained'' we describe sequences that affect the phenotype more immediately, and are therefore more sensitive to mutations, such as, e.g. protein-coding DNA or the stems in RNA secondary structure. ‘Unconstrained'' sequences, on the other hand, can mutate more freely without affecting the phenotype, such as, e.g. intronic or intergenic DNA or the loops in RNA secondary structure. To test our hypothesis we consider a highly simplified GP map that has genotypes with ‘coding'' and ‘non-coding'' parts. We term this the Fibonacci GP map, as it is equivalent to the Fibonacci code in information theory. Despite its simplicity the Fibonacci GP map exhibits all the above properties of much more complex and biologically realistic GP maps. These properties are therefore likely to be fundamental to many biological GP maps.     

Measurement of Electrophysiological Signals In Vitro Using High-Performance Organic Electrochemical Transistors

Biological environments use ions in charge transport for information transmission. The properties of mixed electronic and ionic conductivity in organic materials make them ideal candidates to transduce physiological information into electronically processable signals. A device proven to be highly successful in measuring such information is the organic electrochemical transistor (OECT). Previous electrophysiological measurements performed using OECTs show superior signal-to-noise ratios than electrodes at low frequencies. Subsequent development has significantly improved critical performance parameters such as transconductance and response time. Here, interdigitated-electrode OECTs are fabricated on flexible substrates, with one such state-of-the-art device achieving a peak transconductance of 139 mS with a 138 µs response time. The devices are implemented into an array with interconnects suitable for micro-electrocorticographic application and eight architecture variations are compared. The two best-performing arrays are subject to the full electrophysiological spectrum using prerecorded signals. With frequency filtering, kHz-scale frequencies with 10 µV-scale voltages are resolved. This is supported by a novel quantification of the noise, which compares the gate voltage input and drain current output. These results demonstrate that high-performance OECTs can resolve the full electrophysiological spectrum and suggest that superior signal-to-noise ratios could be achieved in high frequency measurements of multiunit activity.     

Results of Studies on Strengthening Retaining Walls with Composite Materials

Power Technology and Engineering - The experimental results on retaining reinforced-concrete walls reinforced with anchor ties and carbon composite materials on the face side of hydraulic...     

On Application of Carbon-Containing Electrode Materials in Technology of Electrospark Alloying: Part 1. Peculiarities of Coating Formation Using Electrospark Treatment of Titanium Alloy OT4-1

Electrospark treatment of OT4-1 titanium alloy was performed sequentially with a STIM-20N hard-alloy electrode (TiC–20% Ni) and carbon-containing material (graphite and carbon-based composite materials). Kinetics of the mass transfer of the hard-alloy electrode was studied. The cathode mass loss during the first minute of the treatment was established. The kinetics results were processed using the methods of mathematical statistics. The erosion resistance of the applied carbon-containing materials was determined. Phase composition and relief of the coatings formed were analyzed. It was found that the application of the carbon-containing material increases the content of refractory phases in the coatings. Increase in the time of the treatment using the carbon-containing materials decreases the roughness of the coatings.     

Ionic conductivities and high resolution microscopic evaluation of grain and grain boundaries of cerium-based codoped solid electrolytes

Doped CeGdO and codoped CeGdOSmO compositions were synthesized, giving rise to nanoparticulate powders. Ionic conductivities at bulk and grain boundaries of the sintered samples were determined, exhibiting increased conductivity in the samaria-codoped samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed a significant reduction in the grain size of samaria-codoped electrolytes. This reduced grain size of the codoped samples caused a reduction in Schottky barrier height, increasing oxygen vacancy concentration in the space-charge layer of the grain boundary and culminating in greater ionic conductivity in the boundary region. For the gadolinium doped samples, high resolution transmission electron microscopy images at grains showed the presence of large cluster of defects (nanodomains), hindering the movement of charge carriers and reducing ionic conductivity. However, the samaria-codoped system displayed better homogeneity at atomic level, resulting in reduced oxygen vacancy ordering and, consequently, smaller nanodomains and higher bulk (grain) conductivity. The reduced grain sizes and smaller nanodomains caused by codoping favor the ionic conductivity of ceria-based ceramics, doped with gadolinia and codoped with samaria.