The Organization of Product Development

This paper develops a critical perspective on the theory underlyingcontemporary product development practice. It contrasts whatis today the dominant approach to design and product development,an approach that is analytical and problem-oriented, with analternative approach that is interpretative and process-oriented.The interpretative approach views product development as enteringinto an ongoing process in which people are already engaged.It sees the interactions between the different communities involvedin product development as a set of ongoing conversations. Itsuggests the need for a set of conceptual tools for managingthis process which are quite distinct from those associatedwith the analytical approach.     

USE OF VACCINE AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL TECHNIQUES TO CONTROL PATHOGENS IN ANIMALS USED FOR FOOD

An important component of a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach applied to animal production is reducing the carriage of food-associated pathogens by animals. Two approaches that have both great potential for reducing pathogen colonization of animals and merit for practical application include (1) vaccination and (2) competitive exclusion. Vaccination involves acquisition of immunity in an animal following exposure to an attenuated pathogen or an antigen of a virulent microorganism. Adherence factors that influence bacterial colonization of animals are useful antigens for vaccines. A strategy to developing a vaccine to reduce carriage of pathogens includes (1) identifying sites of colonization by the pathogen in the animal, (2) defining the mechanism of colonization, (3) characterizing genes that encode colonization factors, (4) transforming the colonization factor antigen genes into a suitable nonpathogenic vector, and (5) determining the optimal methods of immunization. Studies are underway to identify colonization factors of Escherichia coli O157:H7 for use in vaccine development to protect cattle from colonization by this pathogen. Competitive exclusion involves the use of microbial cultures that out-compete pathogens from colonizing specific niches. A science-based approach to identifying/developing useful competitive exclusion cultures is to: (1) define how a pathogen colonizes the site of interest, (2) isolate microbes that colonize the same site and produce metabolites that inhibit or kill the pathogen, and (3) verify that the inhibitory microbes, when introduced into pathogen-free animals, can reduce or prevent colonization by the pathogen. This approach has been used successfully to identify defined bacterial cultures that can greatly reduce colonization of Campylobacter jejuni in poultry. Commercial implementation of techniques of these types is an essential part of the overall HACCP approach to reducing the prevalence of foodborne pathogens from farm to fork.     

Loss of Amino Acids and Water Soluble Vitamins During Potato Processing

Processing potatoes to potato flakes almost totally eradicated ascorbic acid, but better than 50% of the original amount of riboflavin and niacin was retained. Thiamin content of potato flakes can vary from 0-65% of its amount in the raw potato depending on the amount of sulfite added during processing. If sulfite addition is controlled, a 100g portion of rehydrated potato flakes can supply about 1/6 of the Recommended Dietary Allowance of thiamin. Some losses of arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and gamma aminobutyric acid occurred during hot water blanching, and a significant loss of methionine occurred during drum drying. However, amino acids can be considered quite stable during potato flake production.     

Evaluation of α-SiC Sintering Using Statistical Methods

The effect of time and temperature on the density and strength of α-Sic was studied and mathematically modeled using a central composite experimental design. A sintering temperature of 2150°C for 1.7 h maximized the flexural strength and densification values. However, temperatures above 2200°C promoted abnormal grain growth, with resulting appreciable decreases in strength. Flexural strength increased exponentially with increasing density for specimens with densities <92% of theoretical.     

The Coevolution of Community Networks and Technology: Lessons from the Flight Simulation Industry

This paper explores how interorganizational networks coevolvewith technology in the modern flight simulation industry. Sinceindustries characterized by complex technologies, like flightsimulation, rely on cooperative groups such as technical committees,task forces and standards bodies to adjudicate the process oftechnological evolution, we focus on these groups and term them‘cooperative technical organizations’ (CTOs). Focusingon CTOs enables a multi-level examination of interorganizationalnetworks, as individuals represent their employing organizationsin CTOs, mapping into overlapping membership patterns whichgenerate community-wide networks. We develop a set of propositionson the emergence, growth and re-formation of CTO networks, andexplore how the evolution of these networks both shapes andis constrained by technological outcomes in the flight simulationindustry. We argue that varying levels of technological uncertaintybetween eras of ferment (high uncertainty) and eras of incrementalchange (low uncertainty) engender fundamentally different modesof network evolution: social construction during eras of ferment,and technological determinism during eras of incremental change.More specifically, during the era of ferment, movement of newmembers into the CTO community enables the re-formation of interorganizationalnetworks which select among competing technological alternatives.The selection of a dominant design, however, constrains theevolution of network structure, as subsequent CTO membership:remains relatively consistent. These dynamics have strategicimplications for firms, as the era of ferment presents a windowof opportunity where firms must seek to manage these community-levelnetworks and selection processes to their advantage.     

RESIDUES – A FOOD SAFETY PROBLEM?

Considerable time, regulation and consumer concern is associated with the question of chemical residues in food. Potential residues in food span a broad range from natural contaminants (mycotoxins) through environmental contaminants (dioxins, PCBs), agrochemicals (nitrates, pesticides), veterinary drugs (anthelmintics, antibiotics), prohibited substances (hormonal growth promoters), chemicals arising in processing (nitrosamines), packaging components (plasticisers) to contaminants arising in domestic food preparation (heavy metals). The occurrence or avoidance of these chemicals as residues in food is to a greater or lesser extent under the control of the food producer, processor and consumer in the activities of growing/producing, treating, storing, processing, packaging and cooking. The fundamental question is to what extent do or can residues in food constitute a food safety hazard for the consumer. Many of these substances are regulated as to their use and as to their acceptable levels in food while others, by their nature, arise as more random occurrences and, as such, are less prone to regulation. Of particular concern to the producer, processor and retailer of food is what steps may be taken to ensure that the food supply is safe. Best practice in plant and animal husbandry by the producer, in sourcing of material and in control of food manufacturing by the processor, and in sourcing of food products by the retailer combine to assure the safety of food to the consumer. This paper describes the various classes of chemicals which can arise as residues in food, particularly agrochemicals and veterinary drugs, the usage patterns which decrease/increase the likelihood of the occurrence of residues at unacceptable levels, how and in what form(s) residues can occur in foods, and the contribution of food processing to a reduction or otherwise of residue levels in food consumed. Consideration will be given, also, to quantifying the risk posed by chemical residues in food and to a study of the results from a Residue Database and from residue monitoring/surveillance as an indicator of risk to the consumer.     

Thermostatic tissue platform for intravital microscopy: 'the hanging drop' model

Intravital microscopy imposes the particular problem of the combined control of the body temperature of the animal and the local temperature of the observed organ or tissues. We constructed and tested, in the rat ileum microcirculation preparation, a new organ‐support platform. The platform consisted of an organ bath filled with physiological solution, and contained a suction tube, a superfusion tube, an intestine‐support hand that was attached to a micromanipulator and a thermometer probe. To cover the intestine we used a cover glass plate with a plastic ring glued on its upper surface. After a routine procedure (anaesthesia, monitoring and surgery), the intestine segment (2–3 cm long) was gently exteriorized and placed on the ‘hand’ of the organ support. A small part of the intestine formed a small ‘island’ in the bath that was filled with physiological salt solution. The cover glass was secured in place. The physiological salt solution from the superfusion tube, which was pointed to the lower surface of the cover glass, formed a ‘hanging drop’. The objective of the microscope was then immersed into distilled water that was formed by the cover glass plastic ring. The ‘hanging drop’ technique prevented any tissue quenching, ensured undisturbed microcirculation, provided for stable temperature and humidity, and permitted a clear visual field.