New method for assessing the performance of agricultural biogas plants

Around 5000 agricultural biogas plants were operating in Germany by the end of 2009. There is a recognized need for their assessment, comparison and performance improvement. Prerequisites for their reliable assessment include: 1) detailed and reliable performance data, 2) defined criteria for the assessment, and 3) comprehensive method. The limitations of existing assessment methods have been reviewed. The new method developed for assessing the overall performance of biogas plants is focused on four assessment aspects: biogas production, biogas utilization, environmental impact and socio-economic efficiency. Each assessment aspect was determined by two performance criteria. The method is based on fuzzy set theory and fuzzy mathematics, which enables use of imprecise and uncertain data. Incorporation of enough expertise from the field of biogas technology was enabled in this method as well. Pre-assessment of future biogas plants in their planning phase is possible, contributing to their effective development. The reliability of the method was tested using data from ten monitored biogas plants. The assessment of the ten biogas plants showed that biogas utilization is the aspect with the largest potential for performance improvement, by increasing the external heat utilization. The method developed is adjustable to accommodate new developments related to biogas technology and biogas plants in any geographical region. Future research should be focused on definition and inclusion of more assessment criteria and on developing the methods that are capable to handle compensation between individual criteria.     

Aberration correction by time reversal of moving speckle noise

Focusing a wave through heterogeneous media is an important problem in medical ultrasound imaging. In such aberrating media, in the presence of a small number of point reflectors, iterative time reversal is a well-known method able to focus on the strongest reflector. However, in presence of speckle noise generated by many non-resolved scatterers, iterative time reversal alone does not work. In this paper, we propose the use of the echoes coming from moving particles in a flow, such as red blood cells, to generate a virtual point reflector by iterative time reversal. The construction of the virtual point reflector is performed by a coherent addition of independent realizations of speckle coming from moving particles. After focusing on a virtual point reflector, ultrasound images can be locally corrected inside an isoplanatic patch. An application for the correction of power Doppler images is presented. A theoretical analysis shows that this iterative method allows focusing on the point of maximal insonification of the uncorrected beam.     

Assessment of the Effectiveness of a Constructed Compound Channel River Restoration Project on an Incised Stream

Compound channels are often constructed in restoration projects on rivers and streams that have been channelized or are deeply incised. This design allows for flow over a wider cross-sectional area during high flows and is expected to reduce both flow velocities and bed-shear stresses in the channel during high flows. Using a compound channel restoration project on Tassajara Creek as a case study, the effectiveness of a constructed compound channel in reducing channel velocities and bed-shear stresses during high flow events was tested in two ways. First, since this is an a posteriori analysis, postproject surveys and assessments of the project are used to demonstrate the geomorphic and ecological benefits of the constructed compound channel for reducing further channel incision, improving channel stability, and enhancing native riparian vegetation, while still providing conveyance capacity for design flood flows. Second, the effectiveness of a constructed compound channel in reducing channel velocities and bed-shear stresses during high flow events is evaluated using both the one-dimensional (1D) model, HEC-RAS, and the three-dimensional (3D) numerical model, UnTRIM. This analysis demonstrates that the 1D analysis does not accurately portray the benefits of the compound channel, and is therefore not a suitable tool for evaluating the effectiveness of compound channel designs. These results demonstrate the advantages of using a 3D model and make a strong case for the implementation of more detailed hydrodynamic modeling in evaluating the suitability of restoration alternatives to improve the planning and design of river restoration projects.     

Localized high resolution electrochemistry and multifunctional imaging: scanning electrochemical cell microscopy

We describe highly localized electrochemical measurements and imaging using a simple, mobile theta pipet cell. Each channel (diameter <500 nm) of a tapered theta pipet is filled with electrolyte solution and a Ag/AgCl electrode, between which a bias is applied, resulting in a conductance current across a thin meniscus of solution at the end of the pipet, which is typically deployed in air or a controlled gaseous environment. When the position of the pipet normal to a surface of interest is oscillated, an oscillating component in the conductance current is generated when the meniscus at the end of the probe comes into contact with the surface and undergoes periodic (reversible) deformation, so as to modulate the solution resistance. This oscillating current component can be used to maintain gentle contact of the solution from the pipet cell with the surface and as a set point for high resolution topographical imaging with the pipet. Simultaneously, the mean conductance current that flows between the pipet channels can be measured and is sensitive to the local nature of the interface, informing one, for example, on wettability and ion flow into or out of the surface investigated. Furthermore, conductor or semiconductor surfaces can be connected as a working electrode, with one of the electrodes in the pipet serving as a quasi-reference electrode. This pipet cell then constitutes part of a dynamic electrochemical cell, with which direct voltammetric-amperometric imaging can be carried out simultaneously with conductance and topographical imaging. This provides multifunctional electrochemical maps of surfaces and interfaces at high spatial resolution. The prospects for the use of this new methodology widely are highlighted through exemplar studies and a brief discussion of future applications.     

Tailoring materials properties of UFG aluminium alloys by accumulative roll bonded sandwich-like sheets

Accumulative roll bonding (ARB) as a method of severe plastic deformation is a well-established process to produce ultrafine-grained (UFG) sheet materials with extraordinary mechanical properties. In this work ARB is applied to combine different sheet materials in order to tailor the materials properties by producing sandwich-like structures. The high strength aluminium alloy AA5754, after 4 ARB cycles (N4), is used as a core material. To achieve high corrosion resistance and good visual properties, it is cladded with commercially pure aluminium AA1050A (N4) at room temperature and alternatively with AA6014 (N4) at 230 °C. All materials are UFG and satisfactory bonding between the different layers of aluminium alloys is achieved. Nanoindentation measurements reveal that there is a sharp transition in hardness at the interface. The yield and tensile strength of the core material are fully retained in the case of the AA6014/AA5754 sandwich. The strength of the AA1050A/AA5754 sandwich is slightly lower compared to the core material but still twice as high as the clad material. The serrated yielding effect which is strongly visible in tensile tests on the pure AA5754 alloy completely disappears in the sandwich sheets, which means the surface quality is strongly enhanced.     

Grafted glycopolymer-based receptor mimics on polymer support for selective adhesion of bacteria

A sugar-containing monomer (2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylate, LAMA) was grafted on a polypropylene (PP) microfiltration membrane surface by UV-induced graft copolymerization. The degree of grafting can be controlled by variation of monomer concentration, UV irradiation time, and photoinitiator concentration. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy were employed to confirm the surface modification on the membranes. The water contact angle was used to evaluate the hydrophilicity change of the membrane surface before and after modification. Bacteria capture experiments showed that the membrane could selectively bind E. faecalis while adhesion of S. maltophilia was not influenced by the functionalization of PP with grafted poly(LAMA). The adhesion of E. faecalis onto poly(LAMA) grafted membrane could be inhibited by 200 mM galactose solution; however, glucose solution showed no inhibition effect. Moreover, occupying sugar residues on the membrane surface primarily by a galactose targeting lectin, peanut agglutinin, could significantly suppress the following adhesion of E. faecalis. All these results clearly demonstrate that this poly(LAMA) grafted PP membrane can selectively capture E. faecalis and that this selection is based on the interaction between galactose side groups on grafted flexible functional polymer chains on the membrane surface and galactose binding protein on the E. faecalis cell membrane.     

Interaction intimacy organizes networks of antagonistic interactions in different ways

Interaction intimacy, the degree of biological integration between interacting individuals, shapes the ecology and evolution of species interactions. A major question in ecology is whether interaction intimacy also shapes the way interactions are organized within communities. We combined analyses of network structure and food web models to test the role of interaction intimacy in determining patterns of antagonistic interactions, such as host–parasite, predator–prey and plant–herbivore interactions. Networks describing interactions with low intimacy were more connected, more nested and less modular than high-intimacy networks. Moreover, the performance of the models differed across networks with different levels of intimacy. All models reproduced well low-intimacy networks, whereas the more elaborate models were also capable of reproducing networks depicting interactions with higher levels of intimacy. Our results indicate the key role of interaction intimacy in organizing antagonisms, suggesting that greater interaction intimacy might be associated with greater complexity in the assembly rules shaping ecological networks.     

Strong Size Effects in Supported Ionic Nanoparticles: Tailoring the Stability of NO x Storage Catalysts

Based on a well-defined model-catalyst approach, we study the particle size dependent properties of NO _x storage materials. The single-crystal based model systems are prepared on an ordered Al₂O₃ film, on which BaO nanoparticles are grown under ultrahigh-vacuum (UVH) conditions. Particle size and density are characterized by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The interaction with NO₂ is probed by molecular beam (MB) methods in combination with time-resolved IR reflection absorption spectroscopy (TR-IRAS). It is found that both, the stability and the formation kinetics of alumina supported barium nitrate nanoparticles show a strong dependence on particle size. Very small BaO particles are rapidly converted into nitrates, however, the resulting aggregates exhibit a strongly reduced thermal stability. Surface and bulk nitrate and nitrate features are identified by means of vibrational spectroscopy. It is concluded that the size dependencies are related to the formation and decomposition of surface-related BaNO _x species the decomposition temperature of which can be tuned over an exceptionally large temperature interval. It is suggested that the stability of these surface NO _x species is strongly modified by the underlying support.