State of polarization changes: Classification and measurement

We propose a standardization procedure that provides a convenient, quantitative and reproducible laboratory-based method for measuring the state of polarization (SOP) fluctuations produced by polarization varying devices. This method is based on the SOP distributions generated by commercial polarization scramblers. We show that these devices generate distributions of the maximum change of the SOP (in a given sample time) that follow Rayleigh statistics, which scale linearly with scrambling frequency and the sample time. We use this procedure to measure the SOP fluctuations in a short length of coiled fiber subject to mechanical perturbations.     

Oligo(ethylene oxide) side‐chain steric screening effects on conductimetric properties of grafted poly(4‐vinylpyridinium) salts in aqueous solutions

A set of poly[N‐oligo(ethylene oxide)yl 4‐vinylpyridinium tosylate] (P4VOEOOTs) has been prepared by spontaneous polymerization of 4‐vinylpyridine. This method gives a grafted polyelectrolyte having a positive charge on every backbone pyridinic moiety. The P4VP15Ts, P4VP164Ts, P4VP350Ts and P4VP750Ts aqueous solution conductivities were determined in the concentration range from 6 × 10^?4 to 10^?2 M at 25 °C. The variation of the conductivity versus concentration of the investigated system exhibits typical polyelectrolyte behaviour. The polyelectrolyte mobility was found to be dependent on the oligo(ethylene oxide) (OEO) side‐chain length. Manning's rod‐like model fails to describe these results. A simple steric effect is proposed to explain the influence of the OEO length. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of surface charge, micro-bubble size and particle size on removal efficiency of electro-flotation.

Flotation is a water treatment alternative to sedimentation, and uses small bubbles to remove low-density particles from potable water and wastewater. The effect of zeta potential, bubble size and particle size on removal efficiency of the electro-flotation process was investigated because previous model-simulations indicated that these attributes are critical for high collision efficiency between micro-bubbles and particles. Solutions containing Al3+ as the metal ion were subjected to various conditions. The zeta potentials of bubbles and particles were similar under identical conditions, and their charges were influenced by metal ion concentration and pH. Maximum removal efficiency was 98 and 12% in the presence and absence of flocculation, respectively. Removal efficiency was higher when particle size was similar to bubble size. These results agree with modelling simulations and indicate that collision efficiency is greater when the zeta potential of one is negative and that of the other is positive and when their sizes are similar.     

On the linear correlation between microhardness and mechanical properties in polar polymers and blends

The tensile elastic modulus (E), yield stress (σ_Y) and microhardness (MH) of neat and binary and ternary blends of glassy semicrystalline ethylene–vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH), a glassy amorphous polyamide and a semicrystalline nylon‐containing ionomer covering a broad range of properties were examined. The tests were carried out on dry and water‐equilibrated samples to produce stiffer and softer materials, respectively. From the results, more accurate linear correlations were found to describe adequately the microhardness, modulus and yield stress of these strongly self‐associated polymers through hydrogen bonding. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Co-digestion of manure and biowaste according to the EC animal by-products regulation and Finnish national regulations.

The objective of this study was to compare methane production and characteristics of digested material in anaerobic digestion concepts according to the Animal By-Products Regulation (ABP-Regulation) of the EC (hygienisation of biowaste for 1 hour at 70 degrees C, particle size < 12 mm) and Finnish national regulations (treatment temperature 55 degrees C, feeding interval 24 h, hydraulic retention time (HRT) 20 d, particle size < 40 mm) and with small variations in treatment methods for treating manure and biowaste. Moreover, the survival of three different salmonella bacteria in these processes was studied. Hygienisation of biowaste prior to digestion at 35 degrees C enhanced methane production by 14-18% compared to similar treatment without hygienisation. The differences in treatment temperature, HRT and hygienisation of biowaste prior to digestion did not significantly affect the characteristics of digested material. The concepts according to the ABP-Regulation and Finnish national regulations were effective in destroying salmonella bacteria to an undetectable level.     

Photocatalytic oxidation of low concentration 2,4-D solution with new TiO2 fiber catalyst in a continuous flow reactor.

Environmental pollution by low concentrations of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a concern these days due to ever increasingly stringent regulations. Photocatalysis with immobilized TiO2 fiber is a promising oxidation method. Laboratory experiments on photocatalytic degradation of 0.045 mmol l(-1) 2,4-D with the world's first high-strength TiO2 fiber catalyst were carried out in a continuous flow reactor in which the degradations were, in general, similar to those with high 2,4-D concentrations investigated elsewhere. Degradation and mineralization of 2,4-D were significantly enhanced with no initial pH adjustments. The rate constants for total organic carbon (TOC) without pH adjustment were about two-fold bigger than the pH adjustment cases. CO2 gas measurement and carbon mass-balance were carried out for the first time, where about 34% organic carbon converted into CO2 gas during four-hour oxidation. 2,4-Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), phenol, benzyl alcohol and two unknowns (RT = 2.65 and 3.78 min.) were detected as aromatic intermediates while Phenol was the new aromatic in HPLC analysis. Dechlorination efficiencies were high (> 70%) in all the cases, and more than 90% efficiencies were observed in chloride mass balance. Bigger flow rates and solution temperature fixed at 20 degrees C without pH adjustment greatly enhanced 2,4-D mineralization. These results can be an important basis in applying the treatment method for dioxin-contaminated water and wastewater.     

Performance of thermostatic and electronic valves controlling the compressor capacity

The performance of the energy consumption of an electronic valve and a classical thermostatic valve has been compared when these expansion valves are adopted in a vapour compression plant subjected to a cold store. The main aim is to verify experimentally which type of expansion valve would be preferable from energy point of view when a classical thermostat or a fuzzy logic algorithm are used as the control system for the refrigeration capacity. The fuzzy logic‐based control is able to modulate continuously the compressor speed through an inverter. The results show that with a fuzzy algorithm, the thermostatic expansion valve allows an energy saving of about 8% in comparison with the electronic valve. When on–off control is used, the electric energy consumption obtained both with the electronic valve and with the thermostatic valve is comparable. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of surface waxes on the persistence of chlorpyrifos-methyl in apples, strawberries and grapefruits

The effects of the cuticle and epicuticular waxes of grapefruit, strawberry and apple on the photodegradation and penetration of chlorpyrifos-methyl were studied. Photodegradation experiments were conducted by exposing the insecticide to the light of a xenon lamp in the presence of a film of wax extracted from the fruit surface. The half-life of chlorpyrifos-methyl irradiated in absence of waxes was 9.6 min. The half-lives of pesticide irradiated in the presence of wax extracts of apple, grapefruit and strawberry were 83, 34 and 26 min, respectively. In penetration studies, fruit with and without wax layers were treated with an aqueous suspension of pesticide. The penetration of the pesticide from the cuticle to the pulp was measured after 24 h. Samples without wax contained a higher total amount of insecticide than those with wax. No pesticide was detected in samples of apple and grapefruit pulp. Residues were detected in all fractions of strawberry. The waxes and cuticle appear to have some effect on the photodegradation and penetration of chlorpyrifos-methyl in fruit samples.     

Ring‐opening polymerization of lactones initiated by diphenylzinc–coinitiator systems

Diphenylzinc, alone or in combination with water and butanone as coinitiators, was used as a polymerization initiator system for a variety of lactones at varying temperatures. The resulting data indicate that the course of the polymerization is greatly influenced by the lactone structure, as well as by the molar ratio of coinitiator to diphenylzinc. When used alone, diphenylzinc exhibited high activity as an initiator in δ‐valerolactone polymerizations, although it was less efficient when used in the β‐butyrolactone and the β‐propiolactone polymerizations. Activity in the polymerization of β‐lactones was increased by adding small amounts of butanone or water. It was also observed that the diphenylzinc–butanone combination was more effective than the diphenylzinc–water mixture in the polymerizations of β‐butyrolactone and β‐propiolactone. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry