Reactor technology options for distributed hydrogen generation via ammonia decomposition: A review

Hydrogen (H₂) fuel obtained via thermo-catalytic ammonia (NH₃) decomposition is rapidly attracting considerable interest for portable and distributed power generation systems. Consequently, a variety of reactor technologies are being developed in view of the current lack of infrastructure to generate H₂ for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. This paper provides an extensive review of the state-of-the-art reactor technology (also referred to as reactor infrastructure) for pure NH₃ decomposition. The review strategy is to survey the open literature and present reactor technology developments in a chronological order. The primary objective of this paper is to provide a condensed viewpoint and basis for future advances in reactor technology for generating H₂ via NH₃ decomposition. Also, this review highlights the prominent issues and prevailing challenges that are yet to be overcome for possible market entry and subsequent commercialization of various reactor technologies. To our knowledge, this work presents for the first time a review of reactor infrastructure for distributed H₂ generation via NH₃ decomposition. Despite commendable research and development progress, substantial effort is still required if commercialization of NH₃ decomposition reactor infrastructure is to be realized.     

Borehole temperature evolution during thermal response tests

The measurement of temperature inside a borehole at specified depths during a thermal response test, used to infer the subsurface and the borehole thermal properties for the design of a ground-coupled heat pump system, allows the correlation of the subsurface thermal conductivity with stratigraphy. The temperature signal measured in the borehole during heat injection in a ground heat exchanger made with a single U-pipe, however, depends on the location of the temperature sensor in the borehole, which is difficult to determine in practice. Two-dimensional numerical simulations of the borehole temperature evolution during thermal response tests show that the temperature inside the borehole homogenizes rapidly after heat injection is stopped. Monitoring temperature recovery consequently helps to analyze measurements conducted at depth inside the borehole, since recovery measurements are not significantly influenced by the position of the sensor in the borehole. Numerical simulations also indicate that the borehole thermal resistance is best determined using a combination of recovery and heat injection data.     

A Better Approach to Motor Circuit Protection

Over the years, various approaches including both thermal magnetic breakers and several types of fusible devices have been used in motor circuit protection schemes with acceptable results. Evidence reported in the trade magazines indicated that the level of protection from these types of devices was not totally effective. For the first time, with the printing of the 1968 National Electric Code, the application of instantaneous trip circuit breakers (without time delay) was allowed provided the pickup could be adjusted above 700 percent to a maximum of 1300 percent of the motor full-load ampere rating. After extensive testing the first product complying with these requirements was introduced to the market in 1969. Experience in motor failures indicates that most faults occur at relatively low levels of fault current just above lock rotor values rather than at higher levels. With rapid clearing of faults in the low-level range such as can be accomplished with the use of instantaneous trip circuit breakers, extensive damage to motors as well as to control equipment can be greatly reduced. By combining low-level protection obtained with the high interrupting capabilities of specially designed current limiters, a full range of coordinated protection is available for both high-and low-level faults.     

On the Inapplicability of the Cobb-Douglas Production Function for Estimating the Benefit of Water Use and the Value of Water Resources

The Cobb-Douglas production function is often used to estimate the benefit of water use and the value of water; however, this is an incorrect application. A typical example of the inapplicability is that a negative output elasticity of water resources may be reached when empirical data is collected from the United States, Japan and the city of Beijing in China, where economic growth still increases when the quantity of water use decreases. It is counter-factual that the benefit of water use or the value of water resources are negatively associated with economic production as estimated by the Cobb-Douglas production function. In the case of a positive output elasticity of water resources, the Cobb-Douglas production function cannot be used either. The main reason is that the elasticity of water resources, as an input factor, reflects only part of its total contribution to economic output. In other words, the contribution of water resources to total economic growth, to a great extent, are embodied in total factor productivity, which refers to the portion of output that cannot be explained by the amount of water resources input in the Cobb-Douglas production function. For example, many technological and socio-economic inputs such as the investment on water saving technologies and the optimization of water use structure, surely embody the value of water and account for total economic output, yet these factors are not reflected by the economic output elasticity of water resources in the Cobb-Douglas production function.     

Effect of Cu2+ Ions and Buffering Capacity on Smectite Microstructure and Performance

Smectite is usually used as buffer clay for contaminant of high level nuclear waste canisters. Corrosion of the canisters will expose the buffer clay to Cu2+ ions as one of the corrosion products. This study investigates the effect of Cu2+ cations in a smectite, with and without addition of sodium carbonate in the clay, on its consolidation behavior and transmission characteristics. Characterization experiments conducted in the study included determination of changes in the buffering capacity and permeability properties of the clay in relation to the presence of varying concentrations of Cu2+, and consolidation experiments. Double-layer swelling forces and buffering capacity are seen to be dominant factors in the performance of the clays—apparently through their influence on formation and restructuring of microstructures in the overall smectite clay mixtures.     

A cooperative approach for topology control in Wireless Sensor Networks

The choice of the transmission power levels adopted in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is critical to determine the performance of the network itself in terms of energy efficiency, connectivity and spatial reuse, since it has direct impact on the physical network topology.In this paper, a cooperative, lightweight and fully distributed approach is introduced to adaptively tune the transmission power of sensors in order to match local connectivity constraints. To accurately evaluate the topology control solution, a small-scale testbed based on MicaZ sensor nodes is deployed in indoor and outdoor scenarios. Practical measures on local and multi-hop connectivity, convergence time and emitted power are used to compare the proposed approach against previous solutions. Moreover, mathematical programming formulations of the topology (power) control problem are introduced to assess the optimality of the distributed algorithm. Finally, simulation analysis complements the experimental evaluation in large-scale static and mobile WSN scenarios, where a testbed implementation becomes unfeasible.     

Fouling control of a membrane coupled photocatalytic process treating greywater

Fouling in membrane coupled photocatalytic reactors was investigated in the case of greywater treatment by establishing the link between product type, dose, irradiation time and fouling rates in a cross flow membrane cell fitted with a 0.4 μm pore sized polyethylene membrane. Rapid fouling occurred only with shower gels and conditioners and was linked to changes in the organo-TiO₂ aggregate size postulated to be caused by polymers within the products. Fouling was reduced to a negligible level when sufficient irradiation was applied demonstrating that the membrane component of the process is not the issue and that scale up and implementation of the process relates to effective design of the UV reactor.     

Molecular modeling of antibody-antigen complexes between the Brucella abortus O-chain polysaccharide and a specific monoclonal antibody

A molecular model of the binding site of an anti-carbohydrateantibody (YsT9.1) has been developed using computer-assistedmodeling techniques and molecular dynamics calculations. Sequencehomologies among YsT9.1 and the Fv regions of McPC603, J539and human Bence-Jones protein REI, all of which have solvedcrystal structures, provided the basis for the modeling. Thegroove-type combining site model had a topography which wascomplementary to low energy confonners of the polysaccharide,a Brucella O-antigen, and the site could be almost completelyfilled by a pentasaccharide epitope in either of two dockingmodes. Putative interactions between this epitope and the antibodyare consistent with the known structural requirements for bindingand lead to the design of oligosaccharide inhibitors that probethe veracity of the modeled docked complex. Ultimately boththe Fv model and the docked complex will be compared with independentcrystal structures of YsT9.1 Fab with and without pentasaccharideinhibitor, currently at the stage of refinement.     

Separation of cholesterol,and fatty acylglycerols,acids and amides by thin-layer chromatography

A rapid unidimensional thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) method for the separation of neutral lipids is described, using two sequential solvent systems of different polarity. Excellent separations of mono-, di- and triglycerides, fatty acids, fatty amides, and cholesterol are thereby achieved. Separation is accomplished at room temperature and requires 25 min. Reference to brand of firm name does not constitute endorsement by the United States Department of Agriculture over others of a similar nature not mentioned.