Discharge-based QMRA for estimation of public health risks from exposure to stormwater-borne pathogens in recreational waters in the United States

This study is the first to report a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) on pathogens detected in stormwater discharges-of-concern, rather than relying on pathogen measurements in receiving waters. The pathogen concentrations include seven “Reference Pathogens” identified by the U.S. EPA: Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Salmonella, Norovirus, Rotavirus, Enterovirus, and Adenovirus. Data were collected from 12 sites representative of seven discharge types (including residential, commercial/industrial runoff, agricultural runoff, combined sewer overflows, and forested land), mainly during wet weather conditions during which times human health risks can be substantially elevated. The risks calculated herein therefore generally apply to short-term conditions (during and just after rainfall events) and so the results can be used by water managers to potentially inform the public, even for waters that comply with current criteria (based as they are on a 30-day mean risk). Using an example waterbody and mixed source, pathogen concentrations were used in QMRA models to generate risk profiles for primary and secondary water contact (or inhalation) by adults and children. A number of critical assumptions and considerations around the QMRA analysis are highlighted, particularly the harmonization of the pathogen concentrations measured in discharges during this project with those measured (using different methods) during the published dose–response clinical trials. Norovirus was the most dominant predicted health risk, though further research on its dose–response for illness (cf. infection) is needed. Even if the example mixed-source concentrations of pathogens had been reduced 30 times (by inactivation and mixing), the predicted swimming-associated illness rates – largely driven by Norovirus infections – can still be appreciable. Rotavirus generally induced the second-highest incidence of risk among the tested pathogens while risks for the other Reference Pathogens (Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Adenovirus, Enterovirus and Salmonella) were considerably lower. Secondary contact or inhalation resulted in considerable reductions in risk compared to primary contact. Measurements of Norovirus and careful incorporation of its concentrations into risk models (harmonization) should be a critical consideration for future QMRA efforts. The discharge-based QMRA approach presented herein is particularly relevant to cases where pathogens cannot be reliably detected in receiving waters with detection limits relevant to human health effects.     

Comparison of PCR and quantitative real-time PCR methods for the characterization of ruminant and cattle fecal pollution sources

The State of California has mandated the preparation of a guidance document on the application of fecal source identification methods for recreational water quality management. California contains the fifth highest population of cattle in the United States, making the inclusion of cow-associated methods a logical choice. Because the performance of these methods has been shown to change based on geography and/or local animal feeding practices, laboratory comparisons are needed to determine which assays are best suited for implementation. We describe the performance characterization of two end-point PCR assays (CF128 and CF193) and five real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays (Rum2Bac, BacR, BacCow, CowM2, and CowM3) reported to be associated with either ruminant or cattle feces. Each assay was tested against a blinded set of 38 reference challenge filters (19 duplicate samples) containing fecal pollution from 12 different sources suspected to impact water quality. The abundance of each host-associated genetic marker was measured for qPCR-based assays in both target and non-target animals and compared to quantities of total DNA mass, wet mass of fecal material, as well as Bacteroidales, and enterococci determined by 16S rRNA qPCR and culture-based approaches (enterococci only). Ruminant- and cow-associated genetic markers were detected in all filters containing a cattle fecal source. However, some assays cross-reacted with non-target pollution sources. A large amount of variability was evident across laboratories when protocols were not fixed suggesting that protocol standardization will be necessary for widespread implementation. Finally, performance metrics indicate that the cattle-associated CowM2 qPCR method combined with either the BacR or Rum2Bac ruminant-associated methods are most suitable for implementation.     

Performance evaluation of canine-associated Bacteroidales assays in a multi-laboratory comparison study

The contribution of fecal pollution from dogs in urbanized areas can be significant and is an often underestimated problem. Microbial source tracking methods (MST) utilizing quantitative PCR of dog-associated gene sequences encoding 16S rRNA of Bacteroidales are a useful tool to estimate these contributions. However, data about the performance of available assays are scarce. The results of a multi-laboratory study testing two assays for the determination of dog-associated Bacteroidales (DogBact and BacCan-UCD) on 64 single and mixed fecal source samples created from pooled fecal samples collected in California are presented here. Standardization of qPCR data treatment lowered inter-laboratory variability of sensitivity and specificity results. Both assays exhibited 100% sensitivity. Normalization methods are presented that eliminated random and confirmed non-target responses. The combination of standardized qPCR data treatment, use of normalization via a non-target specific Bacteroidales assay (GenBac3), and application of threshold criteria improved the calculated specificity significantly for both assays. Such measures would reasonably improve MST data interpretation not only for canine-associated assays, but for all qPCR assays used in identifying and monitoring fecal pollution in the environment.     

Aging and Disability: Implications for the Housing Industry and Housing Policy in the United States

Problem: The elderly population of the United States is large and growing rapidly. Since disability rates increase with age, population aging will bring substantial increases in the number of disabled persons and have a significant impact on the nation's housing needs.

Purpose: We demonstrate the impact of population growth and aging on the projected number of households with at least one disabled resident and estimate the probability that a newly built single-family detached unit will have at least one disabled resident during its expected lifetime.

Methods: We calculate disability rates using two alternative measures of disability and construct projections of the number of households with at least one disabled resident. We develop and apply a technique for estimating the probability that a newly built single-family detached unit will house at least one disabled resident using data on the average lifespan of those units, the average length of residence for households occupying those units, and the projected proportion of households with at least one disabled resident.

Results and conclusions: Under our medium assumptions, we project that 21% of households will have at least one disabled resident in 2050 using our first disability measure (physical limitation) and 7% using our second (self-care limitation). We estimate that there is a 60% probability that a newly built single-family detached unit will house at least one disabled resident during its expected lifetime using our first measure, and a 25% probability using our second measure. When disabled visitors are accounted for, the probabilities rise to 91% and 53%, respectively. Given the desire of most people to live independently for as long as possible, these numbers reflect a large and growing need for housing units with features that make them accessible to disabled persons.

Takeaway for practice: The lack of accessible housing provides an opportunity for homebuilders to develop and market products that meet the needs of an aging population. In light of concerns about the civil rights of people with disabilities and the high public cost of nursing home care, housing accessibility is a critical issue for planners and policymakers as well. We believe planners should broaden their vision of the built environment to include the accessibility of the housing stock.

Research support: None.     

Push-out tests and a new approach for the design of secondary composite beam shear connections

Most of the design approaches currently used around the world take into account the weakening effect of trapezoidal types of steel decking in the vicinity of a shear connection by applying a reduction factor to the nominal strength that the same connection would have in a solid concrete slab. Numerous push-out test results on shear connections incorporating this type of decking are presented. These demonstrate that not every shear connection incorporating profiled steel decking which is within the limits of the associated standards, can be classified as sufficiently ductile. A new and more reliable design approach is proposed which also allows for the inclusion of special reinforcing devices to overcome these brittle behaviours. The key element of this design approach is to classify the anticipated connection behaviour, with respect to its deformation capacity, into either ductile or brittle, hence ensuring satisfactory shear connection behaviour where these types of trapezoidal steel decking are used.     

Natürliche Schadstoffrückhalteprozesse für Arsen und Kupfer am Standort einer ehemaligen Buntfarbenfabrik

The sharply confined pattern of arsenic groundwater contamination at the site of a historic dye factory suggests that natural attenuation processes are active and efficient. The supporting data included sequential soil extractions combined with analyses of other soil properties like carbonate content, the loss of ignition and cation exchange capacity and the extraction characteristics of the original dye pigment. The results point to iron oxides and iron hydroxides as the most important adsorbers for copper and arsenic. The attenuation of copper can be estimated to be very efficient mainly due to its pH-controlled low solubility. Besides the specific adsorption to iron oxides, however, arsenic exhibits a rather large, loosely bound and easily exchangeable fraction. The speciation of arsenic in groundwater is dominated by As(V). The oxidation state of the original pigment is As(III). In some parts of the aquifer where suboxic conditions prevail, this oxidation state is conserved. In oxic zones of the aquifer, oxidation to the pentavalent form As(V) takes place.     

Application-specific parameterization of reduced order equivalent circuit battery models for improved accuracy at dynamic load

Reduced order equivalent circuit battery models are widely used for modeling batteries as a part of complex system or as a basis for battery monitoring algorithms. These models are often parameterized in frequency domain using impedance spectroscopy or in time domain by applying current profile and measuring respective voltage response. This paper shows how the frequency characteristic of a typical battery load in a given application can be considered during parameterization to improve the accuracy of the model when it is used in this application with dynamic load. The method uses impedance-based parameterization technique by adopting additional weighting coefficients to the complex nonlinear least squares (CNLS) fitting procedure without introducing any restrictions on its applicability. As an example, modeling of lithium-ion battery in electric vehicles is considered. The proposed techniques reduce the inaccuracy of modeled dynamic battery voltage response by 40% in the considered example.     

Influence of Surface Topography on the Tribological Behaviour of Aluminium Alloy 5182 with EDT Surface

Friction is one of the most important parameters in sheet metal forming. Friction conditions are influenced by the texture of the sheet surface, by the surface or coating of the tools and by the lubrication. The aluminium alloy AA 5182 with EDT surface has been studied and tested at various angles between rolling and sliding direction. The friction behaviour observed in experiments at different normal pressures based on Coulomb’s friction law are shown and discussed in this article. Moreover, local surface topography and lubricant distribution in the contact area are described.     

Whistling behavior of periodic systems: Corrugated pipes and multiple side branch system

Whistling behavior of two geometrically periodic systems are investigated: corrugated pipes and a multiple side branch system. In both systems frequency (Helmholtz number) is a non-decreasing piecewise constant function of the Mach number, whose increase on average is approximately linear. The plateaus, lock-in frequencies, of this piecewise constant function correspond to the longitudinal acoustic pipe modes. In both systems pressure fluctuation amplitude changes non-monotonically with Mach number with local maxima that correspond to the lock-in frequencies. A characteristic length, equal to cavity width plus upstream edge radius, yields the smallest discrepancy in the measured peak whistling Strouhal number for both corrugated pipes and multiple side branch system. For both systems the upstream edge radius of the cavity has a strong effect on pressure fluctuation amplitudes. Whistling amplitudes increase by a factor of 3-5 upon rounding off the upstream cavity edges. The radius of the downstream edge has a less pronounced effect on the sound amplitude and frequency. The geometric parameters of the multiple side branch system can easily be modified. This makes the multiple side branch system a convenient tool for making experiments on the effects of various geometric parameters. A number of aspects are addressed with the multiple side branch system such as the effect of pipe termination geometry, source localization, side branch depth to diameter ratio, a gradient in depth along the pipe and hysteresis upon change in the acceleration or deceleration of the flow.