Propene and 1-Octene Hydroformylation with Silica-Supported, Ionic Liquid-Phase (SILP) Rh-Phosphine Catalysts in Continuous Fixed-Bed Mode

Supported ionic liquid-phase (SILP) catalysts were made by immobilizing Rh-monophosphine complexes of bis(m-phenylguanidinium)phenylphosphine 1 and NORBOS 2 ligands in 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate, [BMIM][PF₆], on a silica support. The catalysts were active in continuous gas- and liquid-phase hydroformylation of propene and 1-octene, exhibiting TOFs up to 88 h^-1 for SILP Rh-2 catalysts, while only low selectivities up to 74% n-aldehyde (n/iso ratio of 2.8) were obtained. This is the first example of continuous fixed-bed liquid-phase hydroformylation using SILP catalysts.     

Continuous Levels‐of‐Detail and Visual Abstraction for Seamless Molecular Visualization

Molecular visualization is often challenged with rendering of large molecular structures in real time. We introduce a novel approach that enables us to show even large protein complexes. Our method is based on the level‐of‐detail concept, where we exploit three different abstractions combined in one visualization. Firstly, molecular surface abstraction exploits three different surfaces, solvent‐excluded surface (SES), Gaussian kernels and van der Waals spheres, combined as one surface by linear interpolation. Secondly, we introduce three shading abstraction levels and a method for creating seamless transitions between these representations. The SES representation with full shading and added contours stands in focus while on the other side a sphere representation of a cluster of atoms with constant shading and without contours provide the context. Thirdly, we propose a hierarchical abstraction based on a set of clusters formed on molecular atoms. All three abstraction models are driven by one importance function classifying the scene into the near‐, mid‐ and far‐field. Moreover, we introduce a methodology to render the entire molecule directly using the A‐buffer technique, which further improves the performance. The rendering performance is evaluated on series of molecules of varying atom counts.     

A new device for coating single particles under controlled conditions

A new device for coating a single levitated particle in a controllable environment is designed and tested. This enables fluidized bed processing to be simulated experimentally on a single-particle level. The device consists of a coating chamber, which contains a capillary tube for levitating the particle, a micro-dispenser for producing discrete drops of controlled size and velocity and a device for supplying gas with specified temperature and humidity. The coating chamber consists of two parts, a confined space where the particle is levitated and a droplet insertion cone where the coating solution is injected into the particle suspending gas flow. A capillary with a well-defined diameter connects the droplet insertion cone and the area where the particle is levitated. The device is equipped with a piezo-actuated flow-through micro-dispenser that has the ability to produce discrete droplets with high reproducibility in terms of droplet size and velocity. The gas required for the coating process is taken from a gas container where the water content is analysed and kept at a minimum. A liquid flow is then introduced into the gas flow at a well-defined flow rate, mixed and evaporated in a three-way mixing vault. The humidified gas flow is then split into two separate flows; a suspending gas flow and a protecting gas flow for the inside of the coating chamber. The device is equipped with a high-speed video camera for monitoring both droplet production and droplet impact. Temperatures and flow rates throughout the device are measured and logged. Preliminary results show the influence of solvent, gas quality and coating procedure on the quality of the coating.     

LDA Measurements on a Turbulent Gas/Liquid/Fibre Suspension

Detailed continuous phase flow measurements (mean and RMS velocities) by Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) of a turbulent gas/fibre/liquid suspension in a rotary shear tester have been performed with simultaneous torque measurements. The model system comprises a refractive‐index matched suspension in the 4‐12% wt. range with gas contents up to 15% vol. The two transition points, found by Andersson and Rasmuson (2000), were detected also with gas present and appear at higher impeller speeds with increasing gas and fibre concentrations. Plotting RMS and mean velocities versus impeller speed and power input, it is found that both decrease with increasing gas and fibre contents.     

Controlled destruction of residual crosslinker in a silicone elastomer for drug delivery

In drug delivery systems that use silicone elastomers as a diffusion matrix for the active drug, it is common to crosslink the material by the hydrosilylation reaction. In this platinum‐catalyzed reaction, vinyl groups on a polymer add to the methyl siloxane hydride (MHS) groups on a low molecular mass crosslinker. With an excess of crosslinker, a fast curing is achieved and a fully crosslinked material is formed. Unreacted MHS groups were shown to remain in the elastomer after curing because of the excess crosslinker. In this work, a simple procedure was developed to eliminate the unreacted MHS groups from the final product. We found that storage of the product at +40°C and 75% relative humidity for a few weeks will effectively destroy the residual MHS groups in the elastomer. The effects of varying levels of humidity, oxygen, and temperature on this postcuring procedure were studied. The amount of MHS groups was measured with NMR and IR spectroscopy. We also found that the hardness of the material increased by approximately 25% as a consequence of this postcuring treatment. This increase is probably due to a secondary crosslinking reaction between MHS and silanol groups. Heat treatment at higher temperatures led to an even further increase in the hardness and compression modulus. Because no MHS groups remained in the elastomer when this heat treatment was started, it is apparent that another secondary crosslinking reaction is occurring, probably silanol condensation. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 84: 2254–2264, 2002     

The effect of synthesis gas composition on the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis over Co/γ-Al2O3 and Co–Re/γ-Al2O3 catalysts

The Fischer–Tropsch synthesis over Co/γ-Al₂O₃ and Co–Re/γ-Al₂O₃ was investigated in a fixed-bed reactor at 20 bar and 483 K using feed gases with molar H₂/CO ratios of 2.1, 1.5 and 1.0 simulating synthesis gas derived from biomass. With lower H₂/CO ratios in the feed, the CO conversion and the CH₄ selectivity decreased, while the C₅₊ selectivity and olefin/paraffin ratio for C₂–C₄ increased slightly. The water–gas shift activity was low for both catalysts, resulting in high molar usage ratios of H₂/CO (close to 2.0), even at the lower inlet ratios (i.e. 1.5 and 1.0). For both catalysts, the drop in the production rate of hydrocarbons when shifting from an inlet ratio of 2.1 to 1.5 was significant mainly because the H₂/CO usage ratio did not follow the change in the inlet ratio. The hydrocarbon selectivities were rather similar for inlet H₂/CO ratios of 2.1 and 1.5, while significantly deviating from those for an inlet ratio of 1.0. With the studied catalysts, it is possible to utilize the advantages of an inlet ratio of 1.0 (higher selectivity to C₅₊, lower selectivity to CH₄, no water–gas shifting of the bio-syngas needed prior to the FT reactor) if a low syngas conversion is accepted.     

Near Wall Studies of Pulp Suspension Flow Using LDA

A detailed study of the flow behaviour in the near wall region of pulp suspensions up to 4.7% have been performed using Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) in pipe flow. Axial mean velocity profiles show a distinct plug flow and an increase of the plug region as the flow rate decreases and fibre concentration increases. An attempt is made to relate the LDA data‐rate to fibre concentration, which indicates a dilution region at 1‐2 mm from the wall that is larger than the annulus region. The dilution region increases with increasing flow rate, decreasing concentration and when using longer pulp fibres.     

Oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane on Pt–Sn impregnated monoliths

The oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane was studied over Pt–Sn impregnated monoliths at 1 bar, 600–900 °C and with different contents of oxygen, hydrogen and steam in the feed gas. As expected a decrease in oxygen in the feed led to a decrease in the conversion of ethane due to lower temperatures in the reactor. Adding steam to the feed showed no effect on the ethane conversion or the ethene selectivity. When the hydrogen/ethane ratio in the feed was varied from 0 to 0.5 at 700 and 850 °C, it resulted in a significant increase in the selectivity to ethene while the ethane conversion remained relatively unchanged. At 700 °C the selectivity increased from about 50% to 93% (carbon basis) with only a small decrease in the conversion of ethane. The results clearly show that both Pt and Sn have a catalytic effect. Pt caused the ethane conversion to rise and addition of Sn resulted in much better ethene selectivity. However, even though Sn alone showed some catalytic effect at lower temperatures, it cannot explain the great difference between the Pt and Pt–Sn catalysts. A reasonable assumption is therefore that there exist interactions between Pt and Sn that gives the Pt–Sn catalysts excellent properties for oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane, in particular upon addition of hydrogen.     

Small-scale hydrogen production from propane

Partial oxidation and oxidative steam reforming of propane were investigated over 0.01 wt.% Rh/Al₂O₃ foam catalysts. High selectivity to hydrogen was obtained for both reactions, but addition of steam to the reactant mixture gave higher selectivity to hydrogen. Stability tests over 7 h revealed that the catalytic activity of Rh was quite stable under partial oxidation conditions. Higher loss in Rh activity was observed when steam was present in the reactant mixture. FE-SEM images showed that Rh particle size and distribution are modified under partial oxidation and oxidative steam reforming conditions. However, these changes were more distinct on the catalyst used for oxidative steam reforming.     

Rheological and extrusion characteristics of glass fiber-reinforced polycarbonate

An experimental investigation of the rheological properties of glass fiber-reinforced polycarbonate melts and the extrusion of such compounds through capillary and slit dies is presented. The viscosity–shear rate function seems independent of instrument for cone-plate and capillary investigations. The presence of fibers increases the level of the viscosity. Normal stresses at fixed shear stress are also increased by the presence of fibers. The extrudate swell is decreased by the presence of fibers and surface roughness is increased. Fiber orientation increases and surface roughness decreases with increasing extrusion rate.