Optimisation of processing conditions for infrared drying of cashew kernels with testa

Cashew kernels are thermally processed to facilitate the removal of their outer skin (testa). Infrared (IR) processing of cashew kernels for differential drying is a novel approach. Processed cashew kernels are valued for their colour, size and texture. The kinetics of colour change and the effect of thermal processing on compressive strength (indicator of brittleness) during IR drying of cashew kernels were investigated. Kernels with testa were dried for different durations (15–55 min) over a range of temperatures (55–95 °C). The change in colour was expressed as total colour difference and browning index. The colour values increased with increasing drying temperature and duration, indicating darkening of the kernel colour. Increase in drying duration reduced the compressive strength, imparting the desired brittleness to the kernel. Optimisation of the drying conditions by response surface methodology and the peelability factor indicated that the best results could be obtained when cashew kernels were dried at 55 °C for 55 min. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Energy and exergy efficiencies in Turkish transportation sector, 1988–2004

This study aims at examining energy and exergy efficiencies in Turkish transportation sector. Unlike the previous studies, historical data is used to investigate the development of efficiencies of 17 years period from 1988 to 2004. The energy consumption values in tons-of-oil equivalent for eight transport modes of four transportation subsectors of the Turkish transportation sector, including hard coal, lignite, oil, and electricity for railways, oil for seaways and airways, and oil and natural gas for highways, are used. The weighted mean energy and exergy efficiencies are calculated for each mode of transport by multiplying weighting factors with efficiency values of that mode. They are then summed up to calculate the weighted mean overall efficiencies for a particular year. Although the energy and exergy efficiencies in Turkish transport sector are slightly improved from 1988 to 2004, the historical pattern is cyclic. The energy efficieny is found to range from 22.16% (2002) to 22.62% (1998 and 2004) with a mean of 22.42±0.14% and exergy efficiency to range from 22.39% (2002) to 22.85% (1998 and 2004) with a mean of 22.65±0.15%. Overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the transport sector consist mostly of energy and exergy efficiencies of the highways subsector in percentages varying from 81.5% in 2004 to 91.7% in 2002. The rest of them are consisted of other subsectors such as railways, seaways, and airways. The overall efficiency patterns are basically controlled by the fuel consumption in airways in spite of this subsector's consisting only a small fraction of total. The major reasons for this are that airways efficiencies and the rate of change in fuel consumption in airways are greater than those of the others. This study shows that airway transportation should be increased to improve the energy and exergy efficiencies of the Turkish transport sectors. However, it should also be noted that no innovations and other advances in transport technologies are included in the calculations. The future studies including such details will certainly help energy analysts and policy makers more than our study.