Particulate emissions from large-scale medium-speed diesel engines: 1. Particle size distribution

This paper addresses particulate matter (PM) size distributions in large-scale diesel engine exhaust. The test engines were multivariable large-scale turbo-charged, after-cooled medium speed (~ 500 rpm, ~ 1 MW power per cylinder) direct injection diesel engines. Emissions measurements were carried out while burning heavy fuel (HFO) and light fuel (LFO) oils. Test modes for investigation were propulsion mode (marine) and generator mode (power plant), with load varying from 25 to 100%. PM was measured using a gravimetric impactor with four impactor stages plus a filter, classifying particles between 0.005 and 2.5 μm (aerodynamic diameter). The results show that HFO firing produces significantly higher PM emissions (more than factor of ~three on mass bases for high load operation) compared to LFO, especially for particles smaller than 0.5 μm. This is mainly due to higher ash-forming elements and sulphur content of HFO. For HFO, the fraction of the finest particles increases with load, more strongly for generator mode than for propulsion mode, with generator mode giving ~ 50% higher PM emissions than propulsion mode. With LFO firing, the largest amount of fine PM was emitted at the lowest load, for propulsion mode being lower and almost independent of load at higher loads, while for generator mode a steady decrease in emissions with increasing load is seen for all PM size classes measured.     

Softwood Distillate as a Bio-Based Additive in Wood-Plastic Composites

The possibility of using softwood distillate as a bio-based additive or filler in wood-plastic composites (WPCs) was studied by adding various amounts (1–20 wt%) of distillate to a commercial WPC consisting of thermally treated sawdust in a polypropylene (PP) matrix. Softwood distillate was obtained as a secondary product from industrial ThermoWood® processing and it was further processed in the laboratory. The addition of softwood distillate significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of WPC when the distillate content was 2 wt%; tensile strength increased by 5%, tensile modulus by 3%, flexural strength by 3%, and modulus of elasticity by almost 2% compared with the unmodified WPC. In addition, a considerable decrease (over 16%) in water absorption was observed on distillate addition. Proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass-spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS) analyses revealed that the addition of softwood distillate increased release rates of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in general, and that the odor of acetaldehyde and guaiacol is detectable in several WPCs. Overall, softwood distillate had positive effects on this particular WPC.     

Statistical Approach to Quality Control of Large Thermodynamic Databases

In chemistry and engineering, thermodynamic databases are widely used to obtain the basic properties of pure substances or mixtures. Large and reliable databases are the basis of all thermodynamic modeling of complex chemical processes or systems. However, the effort needed in the establishment, maintenance, and management of a database increases exponentially along with the size and scope of the database. Therefore, we developed a statistical modeling approach to assist an expert in the evaluation and management process, which can pinpoint various types of erroneous records in a database. We have applied this method to investigate the enthalpy, entropy, and heat capacity characteristics in a large commercial database for approximately 25,000 chemical species. Our highly successful results show that a statistical approach is a valuable tool (1) for the management of such databases and (2) to create enthalpy, entropy and heat capacity estimates for such species in which thermochemical data are not available.     

Temperature optimisation of a diesel engine using exhaust gas heat recovery and thermal energy storage (diesel engine with thermal energy storage)

Modern automotive diesel engines are so energy efficient that they are heating up slowly and tend to run rather cold at subzero temperatures. The problem is especially severe in mail delivery operations where the average speed is low and the drive cycle includes plenty of idling. The problem is typically solved by adding a diesel fuelled additional engine heater which is used for the preheating of the engine during cold start and additional heating of the engine if the coolant temperature falls below a thermostat set point during the drive cycle. However, this additional heater may drastically increase the total fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of the vehicle. In this study the additional heater was replaced by a combination of exhaust gas heat recovery system and latent heat accumulator for thermal energy storage. The system was evaluated on a laboratory dynamometer using a simulated drive cycle and in field testing in the city of Oulu (65°N), Finland in February 2009.     

Synchrotron radiation investigations of the Sr2MgSi2OT：Eu^2＋,R^3＋ persistent luminescence materials

The electronic and defect energy level structure of polycrystalline Sr₂MgSi₂O₇:Eu²⁺,R³⁺ persistent luminescence materials were studied with thermoluminescence and different synchrotron radiation spectroscopies (UV-VUV emission and excitation, X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS)). Special attention was paid on the effect of the R³⁺ co-dopants on the persistent luminescence properties of the materials. Theoretical calculations using the density functional theory (DFT) were carried out simultaneously with the experimental work. The experimental band gap energy (E_g) value of ca. 7.1 eV agreed very well with the DFT value of 6.7 eV. The variation of the E_g value was attempted to relate with the trap structure as well as with the different properties of the R³⁺ co-dopants. The trap level energy distribution depended strongly on the R³⁺ co-dopant except for the shallowest trap energy above the room temperature remaining practically the same, however. The different processes in the mechanism of persistent luminescence from Sr₂MgSi₂O₇:Eu²⁺,R³⁺ were assembled and their contributions discussed.     

An apparatus and a method for determining the slip resistance of shoes and floors by simulation of human foot motions

An apparatus to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction (mu k) between the shoe sole and the underfoot surface was constructed, and a method including criteria to evaluate the risk of slipping during walking was developed. The apparatus is a prototype stationary step simulator capable of simulating the movements of a human foot and the forces applied to the underfoot surface during an actual slip, and the drainage capability of the contact surface between the shoe sole and the flooring when different lubricants or contaminants are used. The apparatus consists of a movable artificial foot controlled by a computer with the aid of three hydraulic cylinders. The frictional force (F mu), the normal force (FN) and their ratio (mu k = F mu/FN) are measured with a two-way force platform when the foot slides along its surface. Two separate gait patterns, heel-side (mu k 1) and sole-slide (mu k 2) gait pattern, are used for the evaluations. The method classifies studied shoe, lubricant and underfoot surface combinations into five slip resistance classes according to the measured mu k 1. The slip resistance assessments are specified with some complementary safety criteria, e.g., the ratio mu k 1/mu k 2. The reliability of the developed measurement method was assessed in an international comparison test. According to available results discussed in this paper, our method seems to be valid and the slip resistance measurements seem to be repeatable.     

Indoor Climate and the Performance of Ventilation in Finnish Residences

The purpose of the study was to gather information about the actual ventilation and indoor air quality and to evaluate the differences between houses and apartments with different ventilation systems. A sample of 242 dwellings in the Helsinki metropolitan area was studied over periods of no weeks during the 1988-1989 heating season. The mean air-exchange rates had a high variation (average 0.52 l/h, range 0.07-1.55 l/h). The ASHRAE minimum value of 0.35 l/h was not achieved in 28% of the dwellings. The air-exchange rates were significantly her in the houses than in the apartments (averages 0.45/0.64 l/h, p < 0.001); in the natural ventilation systems they, were slightly her than in the mechanical systems. The average temperature in the bedrooms was approximately 22 °C (range 18–27 °C), slightly but significantly higher in the apartment than in the houses. The average dust depositions were higher in the balanced ventilation systems than in the other systems. The median radon concentration was 82 Bq/m³ (range 5-866 Bq/m³); the Finnish target value of 200 Bq/m³ was exceeded in 17% of the houses but in none of the apartment. The measurements indicate that the indoor air quality in Finnish dwellings is not always satisfactory with reference to human health and comfort.     

Concentration quenching of Tb3+ luminescence in LaOBr and Gd2O2S phosphors

The concentration quenching of trivalent terbium ${}^5\text{D}{}_{\mathrm{3,4}}\text{→}{}^7\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{J}}$ emissions from UV-excited (La, Tb) OBr and (Gd, Tb)₂O₂S phosphors was studied. The activation concentration x was varied from 5·10^?5 to 0.2 for (La_1?xTb_x) OBr and from 10^?3 to 0.1 for (Gd_1?xTb_x)₂O₂S. ${}^5\text{D}{}_3\text{→}{}^7\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{J}}$ emissions (blue) were observed to quench first and the Tb³⁺ concentration giving rise to maximum intensity was 0.003 in (La, Tb) OBr and between 0.005 and 0.01 in (Gd, Tb)₂O₂S. The optimum concentration for ${}^5\text{D}{}_4\text{→}{}^7\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{J}}$ (green) emissions was 0.05 in (La, Tb) OBr and 0.03 in (Gd, Tb)₂O₂S. Dipole-dipole and dipole-quadrupole interactions are possible mechanisms for the quenching of emissions from the ⁵D₃ and ⁵D₄ levels.A method for determining the Tb³⁺ concentration in these phosphors, based on the intensity ratios of the ${}^5\text{D}{}_3\text{→}{}^7\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{J}}$ and ${}^5\text{D}{}_4\text{→}{}^7\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{J}}$ transitions, is also presented.     

Dose estimates outside the shielding of the CERN intersecting storage rings by the moyer method

Formulas and results are presented for a convenient estimation of dose levels outside the transverse shielding of a high-energy proton accelerator. They are obtained by applying the Moyer method to uniform, local, and exponential beam loss distributions. The techniques are used in shielding considerations of the CERN intersecting storage rings facility. The lay-out of the main shielding is described and estimates of the beam losses during various machine operations are summarized and used to evaluate doses outside the main shield.