Nanostructured materials for water desalination

Desalination of seawater and brackish water is becoming an increasingly important means to address the scarcity of fresh water resources in the world. Decreasing the energy requirements and infrastructure costs of existing desalination technologies remains a challenge. By enabling the manipulation of matter and control of transport at nanometer length scales, the emergence of nanotechnology offers new opportunities to advance water desalination technologies. This review focuses on nanostructured materials that are directly involved in the separation of water from salt as opposed to mitigating issues such as fouling. We discuss separation mechanisms and novel transport phenomena in materials including zeolites, carbon nanotubes, and graphene with potential applications to reverse osmosis, capacitive deionization, and multi-stage flash, among others. Such nanostructured materials can potentially enable the development of next-generation desalination systems with increased efficiency and capacity.     

Mixing crowded biological solutions in milliseconds

In vitro studies of biological reactions are rarely performed in conditions that reflect their native intracellular environments where macromolecular crowding can drastically change reaction rates. Kinetics experiments require reactants to be mixed on a time scale faster than that of the reaction. Unfortunately, highly concentrated solutions of crowding agents such as bovine serum albumin and hemoglobin that are viscous and sticky are extremely difficult to mix rapidly. We demonstrate a new droplet-based microfluidic mixer that induces chaotic mixing of crowded solutions in milliseconds due to protrusions of the microchannel walls that generate oscillating interfacial shear within the droplets. Mixing in the microfluidic mixer is characterized, mechanisms underlying mixing are discussed, and evidence of biocompatibility is presented. This microfluidic platform will allow for the first kinetic studies of biological reactions with millisecond time resolution under conditions of macromolecular crowding similar to those within cells.     

Characterization of soft errors caused by single event upsets in CMOS processes

Radiation-induced single event upsets (SEUs) pose a major challenge for the design of memories and logic circuits in high-performance microprocessors in technologies beyond 90nm. Historically, we have considered power-performance-area trade offs. There is a need to include the soft error rate (SER) as another design parameter. In this paper, we present radiation particle interactions with silicon, charge collection effects, soft errors, and their effect on VLSI circuits. We also discuss the impact of SEUs on system reliability. We describe an accelerated measurement of SERs using a high-intensity neutron beam, the characterization of SERs in sequential logic cells, and technology scaling trends. Finally, some directions for future research are given.     

Mechanism of constitutive activation of the AT1 receptor: influence of the size of the agonist switch binding residue Asn(111)

The AT1 receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR); its activation from the basal state (R) requires an interaction between Asn111 in transmembrane helix III (TM-III) of the receptor and the Tyr4 residue of angiotensin II (Ang II). Asn111 to Gly111 mutation (N111G) results in constitutive activation of the AT1 receptor (Noda et al. (1996) Biochemistry, 35, 16435-16442). We show here that replacement of the AT1 receptors TM-III with a topologically identical 16-residue segment (Cys101-Val116) from the AT2 receptor induces constitutive activity, although Asn111 is preserved in the resulting chimera, CR18. Effects of CR18 and N111G mutations are neither additive nor synergistic. The conformation(s) induced in either mutant mimics the partially activated state (R'), and transition to the fully activated R conformation in both no longer requires the Tyr4 of Ang II. Both the R state of the receptor and the Tyr4 Ang II dependence of receptor activation can be reinstated by introduction of a larger sized Phe side chain at the 111 position in CR18, suggesting that the CR18 mutation generated an effect similar to the reduction of side chain size in the N111G mutation. Consistently in the native AT1 receptor, R' conformation is generated by replacement with residues smaller but not larger than the Asn111. However, size substitution of several other TM-III residues in both receptors did not affect transitions between R, R', and R states. Thus, the property responsible for Asn111 function as a conformational switch is neither polarity nor hydrogen bonding potential but the side chain size. We conclude that the fundamental mechanism responsible for constitutive activation of the AT1 receptor is to increase the entropy of the key agonist-switch binding residue, Asn111. As a result, the normally agonist-dependent R --> R' transition occurs spontaneously. This mechanism may be applicable to many other GPCRs.     

High-voltage power delivery through charge recycling

In this paper, we describe a technique for delivering power to a digital integrated circuit at high voltages, reducing current demands and easing requirements on power-ground network impedances. The design approach consists of stacking CMOS logic domains to operate from a voltage supply that is a multiple of the nominal supply voltage. DC-DC downconversion is performed using charge recycling without the need for explicit downconverters. Experimental results are presented for the prototype system in a 0.18-/spl mu/m CMOS technology operating at both 3.6 V and 5.4 V. Peak energy efficiencies as high as 93% are demonstrated at 3.6 V.     

Integrating Box-Behnken design with genetic algorithm to determine the optimal parametric combination for minimizing burr size in drilling of AISI 316L stainless steel

This paper illustrates the methodology of genetic algorithm (GA) based multi-objective drilling process optimization. The optimal values of cutting speed, feed, point angle and lip clearance angle for a specified drill diameter were determined using GA, which simultaneously minimize burr height and burr thickness at the exit of holes during drilling of AISI 316L stainless steel. The burr size models required for GA optimization were developed using response surface methodology (RSM) with drilling experiments planned as per Box-Behnken design. The GA optimization results reveal that point angle has a significant role in controlling the burr size.     

Analysis of Governing Parameters for Silver-Silver Chloride Electrodes in Microfluidic Electrokinetic Devices

Electrokinetics has become a popular method of both particulate and fluidic control in microdevices. In an effort to address the problems associated with conventional electrokinetic control, we use silver-silver chloride electrodes for low-voltage, spatially localized electrokinetic control in microfluidic devices. This work presents an analysis of the electric fields generated by silver-silver chloride electrodes and establishes a nondimensional design parameter that governs the device performance. In addition, an optimal parameter space for maximum electrode longevity is presented.     

Water equilibria and management using a two-volume model of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell

In this paper, we introduce a modified interpretation of the water activity presented in Springer et al. [T.E. Springer, T.A. Zawodzinski, S. Gottesfeld, Polymer electrolyte fuel cell model, J. Electrochem. Soc. 138 (8) (1991) 2334–2342]. The modification directly affects the membrane water transport between the anode and the cathode (two electrodes) of the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell in the presence of liquid water inside the stack. The modification permits calibration of a zero-dimensional isothermal model to predict the flooding and drying conditions in the two electrodes observed at various current levels [D. Spernjak, S. Advani, A.K. Prasad, Experimental investigation of liquid water formation and transport in a transparent single-serpentine PEM fuel cell, in: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology (FUELCELL2006-97271), June 2006]. Using this model the equilibria of the lumped water mass in the two electrodes are analyzed at various flow conditions of the stack to determine stable and unstable (liquid water growth) operating conditions. Two case studies of water management through modification of cathode inlet humidification and anode water removal are then evaluated using this model. The desired anode water removal and the desired cathode inlet humidification are specified based upon (i) the water balance requirements, (ii) the desired conditions in the electrodes, and (iii) the maximum membrane transport at those conditions.     

Trends in multiprocessor and distributed operating systems designs

This paper presents an overview of the developments in operating systems technology for distributed computing systems and multiprocessor machines. We focus on those design principles that are now widely accepted as useful design paradigms. Approaches common to distributed and multiprocessor operating systems are identified. Issues discussed include process scheduling and synchronization, load balancing, virtual and shared-memory management and parallel file systems. The task-thread model and the object model of computing are also discussed.