Coagulation dynamics of fractal flocs induced by enmeshment and electrostatic patch mechanisms

The size and structure of flocs during floc formation were monitored for various coagulation mechanisms. Two distinctive mechanisms, namely, enmeshment and electrostatic patch, govern the dynamics of kaolin particles coagulation by polyaluminum chloride (PACl). They were investigated by small angle static light scattering (SASLS) and solid-state ²⁷Al NMR. In addition, a novel wet SEM (WSEM) was used in-situ to image the morphology of the aggregate in aqueous solution. Synthetic suspended particles were coagulated by two PACl products, a commercial product (PACl) and one laboratory product (PACl-E). The PACl-E contained more than 60% Al₁₃ while the PACl contained only 7% Al₁₃, with large percentage of colloidal Al. For coagulation by PACl at neutral pH and high dosage where the strong repulsion between particles occurs, the enmeshment ruled by reaction-limited aggregation (RLA) results in larger sweep flocs as well as higher fractal dimensional structure. For coagulation by PACl-E at alkaline pH and low dosage, the flocs were coagulated predominately by electrostatic patch with Al₁₃ aggregates. At such condition, it is likely that diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA) predominately rule PACl-E coagulation. The fractal dimension (D_s) values of PACl and PACl-E flocs formed at enmeshment and electrostatic patch increased with dosage, respectively. When breakage of flocs occurs, the breakage rate of PACl-E flocs is slower than that of sweep flocs. By WSEM imaging, the adsorption of spherical Al precipitates onto the particles was observed to form sweep flocs with a rough and ragged contour, while the PACl-E flocs were formed with a smooth and glossy structure.     

Fire detector systems with ‘distributed intelligence’ the pulse polling system

Well over a million fire detectors are currently in use in the Federal Republic of Germany. Provided they are correctly installed and efficiently maintained, they detect fires reliably at a very early stage. At the present time, the false alarm rate equals about 1% of the number of installed detectors per annum. This false alarm rate must be at least proportionately reduced as further detectors are installed.

Since it is scarcely possible to improve tried-and-tested detector designs, the employment of higher-grade detector signal processing methods suggests itself.

However, ‘more intelligent’ detector signal processing using microprocessors calls for an entirely new fire detection system structure: detectors which independently ‘decide’ whether an alarm criterion is met and then initiate an alarm are replaced by sensors which continuously transmit their measured values to the ‘intelligence’ panel for evaluation. Passive panels which simply receive alarm signals from activated detectors and indicate these or transmit them to the fire brigade are replaced by active processors using permanently improved algorithms for the detection of real fires.

A structural change of this type is possible provided the positive — and the customary — characteristics of the conventional technique are not lost, viz. two-wire lines between detector and panel, simple installation and handling, easy detector replaceability, low cost, etc.

The pulse detector technology is described in detail; it combines the simplicity of conventional fire detection systems with new characteristics, e.g. identification of individual detectors, permanent functional check of all connected detectors, automatic notification of maintenance requirement prior to a slowly developing fault (e.g. such as that caused by corrosion or contamination), uniform response sensitivity unaffected by drifting from the operating points of the detectors and, above all, greater protection against false alarms.     

Interaction effects of multiple pool fires

What are the effects of flame behavior of a number of fires burning in close proximity to one another? The results of measurements of burning rates, heat feedback, flame height, and flame trailing are reported for fires involving liquid pools.     

A box beam finite element for the elastic analysis of thin-walled structures

The purpose of this paper is to present a formulation of a curved thin-walled box beam finite element having a variable cross-section with at least one vertical axis of symmetry.

To allow for the effects of warping and distortion, three degrees of freedom have been included in the formulation. These degrees of freedom have been designated as the rate of change of twisting angle, the distortional angle of the cross-section, and the rate of change of distortional angle. The effect of shear lag has also been included.

The element may be used for the elastic analysis of a variety of thin-walled structures and in particular for the preliminary analysis of box bridge decks where a three-dimensional analysis may be unnecessary. The accuracy of the element has been demonstrated by comparison of the results obtained with known results from other methods for some examples.     

Landscape scale vegetation-type conversion and fire hazard in the San Francisco bay area open spaces

Successional pressures resulting from fire suppression and reduced grazing have resulted in vegetation-type conversion in the open spaces surrounding the urbanized areas of the San Francisco bay area. Coverage of various vegetation types were sampled on seven sites using a chronosequence of remote images in order to measure change over time. Results suggest a significant conversion of grassland to shrubland dominated by Baccharis pilularison five of the seven sites sampled. An increase in Pseudotsuga menziesii coverage was also measured on the sites where it was present. Increases fuel and fire hazard were determined through field sampling and use of the FARSITE fire area simulator. A significant increase in biomass resulting from succession of grass-dominated to shrub-dominated communities was evident. In addition, results from the FARSITE simulations indicated significantly higher fire-line intensity, and flame length associated with shrublands over all other vegetation types sampled. These results indicate that the replacement of grass dominated with shrub-dominated landscapes has increased the probability of high intensity fires.     

A colorimetric method for ammonia in natural waters

An improved phenol-hypochlorite method for determining ammonia in water using nitroprusside as catalyst has been investigated. Unlike other recently published methods, the method is simple (and sufficiently sensitive for low-level analyses) and does not require accurate time intervals between reagents, not expensive equipment. The method is well suited for routine use.

Beer's Law was obeyed over the whole ammonia range investigated. Reproducibility was 1·3 per cent with 10 μg N, and 5·7 per cent with 1 μg N.     

Studies on oxidation of benzo [a] pyrene by sunlight and ozone

The destruction of the carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) by light is well known; laboratory workers are routinely advised to cover fluorescent lamps with yellow filters while treating samples containing BaP. However until recently the mechanism of oxidation by sunlight and ozone had not been studied in detail. Concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene in urban air are in the range of 5–10 μg/1000 m³. Oxidant concentrations (predominantly in the form of ozone) are reported to be in the range of 0.01 ppm (22 μg per m³). Thus a sampling system with a filter paper would filter about 22,000 μg of ozone passing through and collect about 5 μg of BaP for analysis. The effect of interactions of such large ozone concentrations with BaP deposited on the filter paper is reported; data for the oxidation rates for benzo[a]pyrene coated on quartz surface and exposed to ozone or sunlight are presented. The oxidation products were analysed by thin-layer chromatography and highpressure liquid chromatography. From about eight products detected in these experiments, three have been identified as quinones based on UV-absorption spectrometry and mass spectrometry. Oxidation rates as high as 100% per hour of exposure are observed when less than 0.1 μg of BaP is coated inside the quartz tubes and exposed to ozone or sunlight. Oxidation rates for benzo[a]pyrene (using tritiated BaP) were determined for two types of experimental conditions. In the first set, tritiated BaP was spotted onto a glass fibre paper and sampling continued for 24 h; the loss of BaP was found to be 88%. In the second set tritiated BaP was spotted at intervals of one hour, for eight hours, while sampling is being carried out and the loss of BaP during the period was estimated to be 50%.     

The effect of a sprinkler on the stability of a smoke layer beneath a ceiling

A study has been made of the effect of sprinkler sprays on hot buoyant smoke layers with particular reference to covered shopping malls.     

Enhancement of bond strength for epoxy-coated rebar using river sand

In this paper, improvement of bond strength for epoxy-coated rebars is studied. Although the epoxy-coated rebar is well accepted as an alternative corrosion prevention method in engineering practice, it still suffers from its poor bond performance, which requires modification of design parameters such as development length and splice length. Following our previous study [Proceedings of the Third Structure Engineering Conference (1996) 651–659], it is proposed to mix the river sand in the epoxy to improve the bond strength of epoxy-coated rebar. Specimens of several sizes of river sand and sand/epoxy weight ratios were studied. The single-rebar pullout test was performed to examine the bond strength. The open circuit potential method and the linear DC polarization method were conducted for corrosion rate measurements to ensure for keeping the merit of epoxy-coated rebar, i.e. the ability of corrosion. Experimental results show that the proposed method is very promising.     

Heavy metals in maternal and cord blood

Heavy metal concentrations have been determined in maternal and cord blood samples collected from mothers in the age group 20-25 years with full-term neonates (37-40 weeks). The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cu and Zn were found to be low in cord blood as compared to mother's blood and the ratio between cord blood and maternal blood for the respective elements was found to be approximately 0.80, 0.86, 0.47 and 0.40. On the other hand, the concentrations of Fe and Mg in the mother's blood were found to be lower than those in the cord blood. Prenatal exposure to lead in Mumbai, though low (5.1 microg/dl), is approximately 2-3 times higher than that observed in Canada or Italy. A strong correlation (r = 0.79) between the maternal and cord blood lead levels has been observed during the present study.