The use of X‐ray absorption spectroscopy for monitoring the thickness of antiwear films from ZDDP

X‐ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy at the P K‐edge was used to monitor ZDDP antiwear film thickness with rubbing time. Thermal immersion films of varying thickness were generated from the ZDDP and analysed using XANES spectroscopy and the particle induced X‐ray emission (PIXE) technique. P K‐edge XANES edge jumps and (1s → np) peak heights of the spectra were plotted against PIXE mass thickness values in order to establish calibration curves. Antiwear films were analysed using XANES spectroscopy, and average mass thicknesses were extrapolated from the calibration curves. A set of antiwear films formed in the presence of ZDDP and then further rubbed in base oil (no ZDDP) showed no significant decrease in film thickness. A set of antiwear films rubbed in the presence of ZDDP for various lengths of time showed an increase in film thickness, followed by thinning of the film. The decrease in film thickness is believed to be due to wear caused by the ZDDP solution decomposition products acting as an abrasive in the contact region. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Surface energy and separation mechanics of droplet interface phospholipid bilayers

Droplet interface bilayers are a convenient model system to study the physio-chemical properties of phospholipid bilayers, the major component of the cell membrane. The mechanical response of these bilayers to various external mechanical stimuli is an active area of research because of its implications for cellular viability and the development of artificial cells. In this article, we characterize the separation mechanics of droplet interface bilayers under step strain using a combination of experiments and numerical modelling. Initially, we show that the bilayer surface energy can be obtained using principles of energy conservation. Subsequently, we subject the system to a step strain by separating the drops in a step-wise manner, and track the evolution of the bilayer contact angle and radius. The relaxation time of the bilayer contact angle and radius along with the decay magnitude of the bilayer radius were observed to increase with each separation step. By analysing the forces acting on the bilayer and the rate of separation, we show that the bilayer separates primarily through the peeling process with the dominant resistance to separation coming from viscous dissipation associated with corner flows. Finally, we explain the intrinsic features of the observed bilayer separation by means of a mathematical model comprising the Young–Laplace equation and an evolution equation. We believe that the reported experimental and numerical results extend the scientific understanding of lipid bilayer mechanics, and that the developed experimental and numerical tools offer a convenient platform to study the mechanics of other types of bilayers.     

Study of residual elastic- and plastic-deformation in uniaxial tensile strained nickel-based Alloy 600 samples by polychromatic X-ray microdiffraction (PXM) and neutron diffraction methods

In order to assess the reliability of the relatively new polychromatic X-ray microdiffraction (PXM) method for measuring the magnitude and distribution of mechanical strains, PXM and the traditional technique—neutron diffraction measurements were made on the gauge section of an uniaxially 1% strained Alloy 600 tensile specimen and an unstressed sample of the same alloy. The average strain magnitudes for the grains analyzed by PXM were found to be similar with those measured from neutron diffraction within the large experimental uncertainty. Of particular interest was the behavior of dislocations in opposing grains across grain boundaries of differing orientations, which was studied by comparing the elongation and splitting of PXM spots. Similar dislocation densities, operating on the similar slip systems, were found on both sides of 60° boundaries, while considerable differences in the degree of elongation and splitting of diffraction spots occurred between grains with other misorientation angles.     

Fractography as well as fatigue and fracture of 25 wt% silicon carbide whisker reinforced alumina ceramic composite

Fatigue cracked and fast fractured regions in four-point bend specimens prepared from 25 wt% silicon carbide whisker reinforced alumina composite were examined by scanning electron microscopy. This composite was found to be susceptible to a fatigue crack growth phenomenon similar to that in the case of metallic materials, but with a higher crack growth exponent. In the fatigue region, the alumina matrix failed mainly in a transgranular mode and the whiskers mainly failed with a flat fracture surface but without their pullout. On the other hand, in the fast fracture region, the whiskers failed predominantly by pullout and the alumina matrix failed in a mixed mode with about half in transgranular and the other half in intergranular mode. Thus, to improve the fracture toughness of the material, the grain boundary strength of alumina and the matrix whisker interfacial bonding should be improved. To increase the resistance to fatigue, the fracture strength of the alumina grains should be improved by using finer α-alumina particles and the fatigue strength of the whisker have to be increased by improving the uniformity in distribution of β-SiC whiskers during hot pressing.     

Three DNA sequencing methods using capillary gel electrophoresis and laser-induced fluorescence.

Capillary gel electrophoresis is demonstrated for the four-spectral-channel sequencing technique of Smith, the two-spectral-channel sequencing technique of Prober, and the one-spectral-channel sequencing technique of Richardson and Tabor. Sequencing rates up to 1000 bases/h are obtained at electric field strengths of 465 V/cm. At lower electric field strengths, capillary electrophoresis produces useful data for fragments greater than 550 nucleotides in length with 2 times better resolution than slab gel electrophoresis. An on-column detector produces detection limits of 200 zmol (1 zmol = 10(-21) mol = 600 molecules) for the four-spectral-channel technique. A postcolumn detector, based on the sheath flow cuvette, produces detection limits of 20 and 2 zmol for the two- and one-spectral-channel techniques, respectively.     

Towards ultrathick battery electrodes: aligned carbon nanotube-enabled architecture

Vapor deposition techniques were utilized to synthesize very thick (～1 mm) Li-ion battery anodes consisting of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes coated with silicon and carbon. The produced anode demonstrated ultrahigh thermal (>400 W·m(-1) ·K(-1)) and high electrical (>20 S·m(-1)) conductivities, high cycle stability, and high average capacity (>3000 mAh·g(Si) (-1)). The processes utilized allow for the conformal deposition of other materials, thus making it a promising architecture for the development of Li-ion anodes and cathodes with greatly enhanced electrical and thermal conductivities.     

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of size-segregated aerosol deposits on foil substrates

A method based on Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) double-pass transmittance spectroscopy was developed for determining functional group loading in size-segregated ambient aerosol deposits. The impactor employed for sample collection utilized rotating stages, which produced uniform particulate matter (PM) deposits on standard Al foil substrates. Each sample was analyzed without extraction using an FTIR spectrometer equipped with a reflectometer accessory. The use of the reflectometer obviated the need for infrared window materials as substrates. (NH(4))(2)SO(4) aerosol generated under laboratory conditions were used to calibrate deposit mass to the band strength of the relatively isolated nu(4) bending mode of SO(2-)(4) centered near 620 cm(-1). Atmospheric PM was sampled during the summer of 2004 in Huntsville, Ala. Sulfate concentrations determined in this initial study correlated well with measurements made by collocated EPA air samplers.     

Towards a general theory of driver behaviour

Taylor [Taylor, D.H., 1964. Drivers' galvanic skin response and the risk of accident. Ergonomics 7, 439-451] argued that drivers attempt to maintain a constant level of anxiety when driving which Wilde [Wilde, G.J.S., 1982. The theory of risk homeostasis: implications for safety and health. Risk Anal. 2, 209-225] interpreted to be coupled to subjective estimates of the probability of collision. This theoretical paper argues that what drivers attempt to maintain is a level of task difficulty. Naatanen and Summala [Naatanen, R., Summala, H., 1976. Road User Behaviour and Traffic Accidents. North Holland/Elsevier, Amsterdam, New York] similarly rejected the concept of statistical risk as a determinant of driver behaviour, but in so doing fell back on the learning process to generate a largely automatised selection of appropriate safety margins. However it is argued here that driver behaviour cannot be acquired and executed principally in such S-R terms. The concept of task difficulty is elaborated within the framework of the task-capability interface (TCI) model, which describes the dynamic interaction between the determinants of task demand and driver capability. It is this interaction which produces different levels of task difficulty. Implications of the model are discussed regarding variation in performance, resource allocation, hierarchical decision-making and the interdependence of demand and capability. Task difficulty homeostasis is proposed as a key sub-goal in driving and speed choice is argued to be the primary solution to the problem of keeping task difficulty within selected boundaries. The relationship between task difficulty and mental workload and calibration is clarified. Evidence is cited in support of the TCI model, which clearly distinguishes task difficulty from estimates of statistical risk. However, contrary to expectation, ratings of perceived risk depart from ratings of statistical risk but track difficulty ratings almost perfectly. It now appears that feelings of risk may inform driver decision making, as Taylor originally suggested, but not in terms of risk of collision, but rather in terms of task difficulty. Finally risk homeostasis is presented as a special case of task difficulty homeostasis.     

Attribute Charts for Monitoring a Dependent Process

For some repetitive production processes, the quality measure taken on the output is an attribute variable. An attribute variable classifies each output item into one of a countable set of categories. One of the simplest and most commonly used attribute variables is the one which classifies an item as either ‘conforming’ or ‘non‐conforming’. A tool used with a considerable amount of success in industry for monitoring the quality of a production process is the quality control chart. Generally a control charting procedure uses a sequence, of the quality measures to make a decision about the quality of the process. How this sequence is used to make a decision defines the control chart. In order to design a control chart one must consider how the underlying sequence, is modeled. The sequence is often modeled as a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables. For many industrial processes, this model is appropriate, but in others it may not be. In this paper, a sequence of random variables, is used to classify an item as conforming or non‐conforming under a stationary Markov chain model and under 100% sequential sampling. Two different control charting schemes are investigated. Both schemes plot a sequence of measures on the control chart, that count the number of conforming items before a non‐conforming item. The first scheme signals as out‐of‐control if a value of falls below a certain lower limit. The second scheme signals as out‐of‐control if two out of two values of fall below a certain lower limit. The efficiency of both of the control charts is evaluated by the average run length (ARL) of the chart and the power of the chart to detect a shift in the process. The two out of two scheme is shown to have high power and a large ARL given certain parameter values of the process. An example of the two out of two scheme is provided for the interested reader. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.