Solid-State Electrodes for Multichannel Multiplexed Intracortical Neuronal Recording

Thin-film arrays of extracellular recording electrodes have been developed for use in studies of information processing in neural structures and eventual use in closed-loop control of neural prostheses. These probes consist of a silicon substrate which supports an array of thin-film conductors. The conductors are insulated above and below with deposited dielectrics. The electrode sites are defined by openings in the upper dielectric layer and are inlaid with gold to form low-impedance recording surfaces. The probes are typically 15 pim in thickness with shank widths as narrow as 20 ?m. The probe fabrication process is compatible with the inclusion of signal processing circuitry directly on the probe substrate. A 12 channel on-chip signal processor design with per-channel gain of 100, bandwidth of 100 Hz-6 kHz, multiplexed output, and recording-site impedance check capability is described. The probes have adequate strength to penetrate the gerbil pia-arachnoid layer and have recorded single neuron activity of over 500 ?V peak-to-peak from tip, side, and mid-carrier sites. Signal-to-noise ratios as high as 10:1 have been achieved. An equivalent circuit model for the conducting leads, the recording site, and the electrode-electrolyte interface is described. Development of biocompatible insulation and encapsulation materials for long-term implantation of active probes is underway.     

如何利用智能电源管理技术节省能源

近几年来,电源管理技术有飞跃的发展,可供选择的设计方案也越来越多.政界、环保团体及消费者不断向电子产品厂商施加压力,敦促他们增加产品功能的同时,也必须降低系统的消耗.     

Interleukin-1, nitric oxide and reactive astrocytes

Recent work in many laboratories has revealed that cytokines are important mediators of inflammation, host defense, and tissue injury in a variety of neurological diseases. A role for astrocytes and microglia in these diseases has been considered pivotal, since both cell types readily produce and respond to cytokines in vitro and show morphologic and immunocytochemical evidence for activation in vivo. Although much of the work documenting these events has been generated in rodent systems, our laboratory has focused on human cell culture systems to define the nature of the activating signals for human microglia and astrocytes and their responses to activating cytokines and growth factors and evidence for activation. The results have shown that interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a potent activator of human astrocytes and induces cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6, and is a potent activator of nitric oxide generation in astrocytes. Astrocytes also promote microglial growth and differentiation through production of colony-stimulating factors, an activity that is enhanced following activation with IL-1. This review will summarize the human glia data generated in this and other laboratories and present hypotheses how glia may participate in certain human central nervous system diseases.     

Expression of type II nitric oxide synthase in primary human astrocytes and microglia: role of IL-1beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist

In this work, we studied the expression of type II nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in primary cultures of human astrocytes and microglia. Cytokine-activated human fetal astrocytes expressed a 4.5-kb type II NOS mRNA that was first evident at 8 h, steadily increased through 48 h, and persisted through 72 h. The inducing signals for astrocyte NOS II mRNA expression were in the order IL-1beta + IFN-gamma > IL-1beta + TNF-alpha > IL-1beta. SDS-PAGE analysis of cytokine-stimulated astrocyte cultures revealed an approximately 130-kDa single NOS II band that was expressed strongly at 48 and 72 h (72 h > 48 h). Specific NOS II immunoreactivity was detected in cytokine-treated astrocytes, both in the cytosol and in a discrete paranuclear region, which corresponded to Golgi-like membranes on immunoelectron microscopy. In human microglia, cytokines and LPS failed to induce NOS II expression, while the same stimuli readily induced TNF-alpha expression. In cytokine-treated human astrocytes, neither NOS II mRNA/protein expression nor nitrite production was inhibited by TGF-beta, IL-4, or IL-10. In contrast, IL-1 receptor antagonist exerted near complete inhibition of NOS II mRNA and nitrite induction. Monocyte chemoattractant peptide-1 mRNA was induced in TGF-beta-treated astrocytes, demonstrating the presence of receptors for TGF-beta in astrocytes. These results confirm that in humans, cytokines stimulate astrocytes, but not microglia, to express NOS II belonging to the high output nitric oxide system similar to that found in rodent macrophages. They also show that the regulation of type II NOS expression in human glia differs significantly from that in rodent glia. A crucial role for the IL-1 pathway in the regulation of human astrocyte NOS II is shown, suggesting a potential role for IL-1 as a regulator of astrocyte activation in vivo.     

Urokinase and the intestinal mucosa: evidence for a role in epithelial cell turnover

The enzyme nitric oxide synthase catalyzes the oxidation of the amino acid L-arginine to L-citrulline and nitric oxide in an NADPH-dependent reaction. Nitric oxide plays a critical role in signal transduction pathways in the cardiovascular and nervous systems and is a key component of the cytostatic/cytotoxic function of the immune system. Characterization of nitric oxide synthase substrates and cofactors has outlined the broad details of the overall reaction and suggested possibilities for chemical steps in the reaction; however, the molecular details of the reaction mechanism are still poorly understood. Recent evidence suggests a role for the reduced bound pterin in the first step of the reaction--the hydroxylation of L-arginine.     

Haemosuccus pancreaticus as a rare initial manifestation of chronic pancreatitis

Twenty-seven painful knee replacements were evaluated arthroscopically. The diagnostic and therapeutic value of these arthroscopic procedures was studied retrospectively. In 5 of the 27 cases, the arthroscopy revealed no diagnosis for the pain. Some form of arthroscopic treatment was performed in 20 cases; in 6 of these 20 cases, however, the treatment did not reduce the pain. Based on these findings, we conclude that the indications for arthroscopic evaluation and treatment of painful knee prostheses are limited.     

Sites of alcohol and volatile anaesthetic action on GABA(A) and glycine receptors

Volatile anaesthetics have historically been considered to act in a nonspecific manner on the central nervous system. More recent studies, however, have revealed that the receptors for inhibitory neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine are sensitive to clinically relevant concentrations of inhaled anaesthetics. The function of GABA(A) and glycine receptors is enhanced by a number of anaesthetics and alcohols, whereas activity of the related GABA rho1 receptor is reduced. We have used this difference in pharmacology to investigate the molecular basis for modulation of these receptors by anaesthetics and alcohols. By using chimaeric receptor constructs, we have identified a region of 45 amino-acid residues that is both necessary and sufficient for the enhancement of receptor function. Within this region, two specific amino-acid residues in transmembrane domains 2 and 3 are critical for allosteric modulation of both GABA(A) and glycine receptors by alcohols and two volatile anaesthetics. These observations support the idea that anaesthetics exert a specific effect on these ion-channel proteins, and allow for the future testing of specific hypotheses of the action of anaesthetics.     

Induced Defensive Response of Myrtle Oak to Foliar Insect Herbivory in Ambient and Elevated Co2

The rising level of atmospheric CO2 has stimulated several recent studies attempting to predict the effects of increased CO2 on ecological communities. However, most of these studies have been conducted in the benign conditions of the laboratory and in the absence of herbivores. In the current study, we utilized large octagonal chambers, which enclosed portions of an intact scrub-oak community to investigate the interactive effects of CO2 and insect herbivory on myrtle oak, Quercus myrtifolia. Specifically, we assessed the effects of ambient and elevated CO2 (2x current concentrations) on percent foliar nitrogen, C:N ratio, total relative foliar tannin content, and the presence of leaf damage caused by leaf mining and leaf chewing insects that feed on myrtle oak. Total foliar N declined and C:N ratios increased significantly in oaks in elevated CO2 chambers. The percentages of leaves damaged by either leafminers or leaf chewers tended to be lower in elevated compared to ambient chambers, but they co-occurred on leaves less than expected, regardless of CO2 treatment. Leaves that had been either mined or chewed exhibited a similar wounding or defensive response; they had an average of 25 and 21% higher protein binding ability, which is correlated with tannin concentration, compared to nondamaged control leaves, respectively. While the protein-binding ability (expressed as total percent tannin) of leaves from elevated CO2 was slightly higher than from leaves grown in ambient chambers, this difference was not significant.