Reversible electrochemical insertion of anions in poly-p-phenylene from aqueous electrolytes

Poly-p-phenylene (PPP) was synthesized from benzene according to the Kovacic method. Electrodes were made from this electronic insulator by cold- or hot-pressing of the loose, brown powder, under the addition of 7.5 wt. % soot (Corax L^®, Degussa AG). The electrochemical insertion and removal of anions HSO⁻₄, ClO⁻₄ in this material in aqueous solutions of the corresponding acids was investigated by slow cyclic voltammetry.

Initially, only a surface layer of about 0.1 mm thickness takes part in the electrochemical processes, which are reversible. A maximum concentration of anions in the solid of [(−C₆H₄−)⁺₇ A⁻] is attainable. The maximum degree of insertion is equal to 0.14. The insertion potential U_I shifts strongly into the negative direction with increasing concentration c of the acid. A linear U_I/c relationship is observed as in the case of graphite, where the intercalation potential is more positive by 20–200 mV for the same electrolyte. The round trip current efficiency for the insertion/removal cycle increases with increasing acid concentration attaining 100% in 14 M H₂SO₄ or 11.3 M CHlO₄. For a given concentration, increases in the same order as with graphite (H₂SO₄ < HClO₄ < HBF₄), being somewhat lower for a given electrolyte composition. From anodic current limitation (j_lim = 5–10 mA cm⁻²), a diffusion coefficient of about D = 2 × 10⁻⁷ cm² s⁻¹ is derived for the transport of anions in the bulk of PPP. The striking similarity of our results to former findings with graphite is thoroughly discussed. Some general conclusions are derived thereof.     

Zur Bewegung feiner Partikeln,die in turbulent strömenden Medien suspendiert sind

Motion of fine grained particles, suspended in turbulent flow . This article considers the motion of particles, suspended in turbulent flow. If the particles are sufficiently small to respond to turbulence, their motion includes stochastic components. Concerning processes like air classification or separation of fine powders the stochastic contribution – characterized by the conception of a particle diffusivity – the particle motion exhibits a detrimental influence. Sharpness of cut and separation efficiency are reduced. The paper aims to present the state of the art in particle diffusion. First, theoretical investigations are reported, attention being focused on the equation of motion of the particle which is the link between the motion of the fluid and the motion of the particle. Then, experimental results are reviewed. The following tendencies can be seen: Particles which response to turbulence of fluid flow show increasing diffusivity with increasing inertia. Field forces like gravity or electrical field forces exhibit a damping effect on diffusivity.     

Molecular weight characteristics of humic substances from different environments as determined by size exclusion chromatography and their statistical evaluation

Recorded molecular weights (MWs) for humic substances (HS) range from a few hundred to millions of daltons. For purposes of defining HS as a specific class of chemical compounds, it is of particular importance to ascertain if this broad range of MWs can be attributed to actual variability in molecular properties or is simply an artifact of the analytical techniques used to characterize HS. The main objectives of this study were (1)to establish if a preferential range of MWs exists for HS and (2) to determine any consistent MW properties of HS. To reach the goal, we have undertaken an approach to measure under standardized conditions the MW characteristics of a large set of HS from different natural environments. Seventy-seven humic materials were isolated from freshwater, soil, peat, and coal, such that each possessed a different fractional composition: humic acid (HA), fulvic acid (FA), and a nonfractionated mixture of HA and FA (HF). Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) was used as the analytical technique to determine molecular weight characteristics. The MW distributions were characterized by number (Mn) and weight (Mw) average MW, and by polydispersity. The complete range of Mw values varied within 4.7-30.4 kDa. The maximum Mw values were observed for peat HF and soil HA, whereas the smallest weights were measured for river water HF. Maximum values of polydispersity (3.5-4.4) were seen for peat HF and soil HA, while much lower values (1.6-3.1) were found for all preparations isolated with XAD-resins. Statistical evaluation showed consistent Mw and Mn variations with the HS source, while polydispersity was mostly a function of the isolation procedure used. A conclusion was made that HS have a preferential range of MW values that could characterize them as a specific class of chemical compounds.     

Electron-beam treatment of aromatic hydrocarbons that can be air-stripped from contaminated groundwater. 2. Gas-phase studies

The electron-beam (EB) degradation of volatile aromatics (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes: BTEX) in groundwater strip gas, which in the present work has been modeled by the introduction of the desired aromatic(s) to a stream of air or another gas, such as oxygen, is initiated essentially by the addition of *OH radicals to the aromatic ring, giving rise to hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals, which form the corresponding peroxyl radicals upon addition of oxygen. As studied in some detail with benzene as a BTEX representative, various reactions of these lead to numerous oxidation products in a cascade of reactions, including the decomposition of products under the prevailing conditions of high turnover of the initial aromatic. Importantly, hydroxycyclohexadienylperoxyl radical formation is partly reversible, and the reactions of the hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals, which thus have a significant presence in these systems, must therefore also be taken into consideration. In the gas phase, in contrast to the aqueous phase (see Part 1), the reactions of the hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals lead to oligomeric products that appear to contribute, in addition to ionic clusters, to nucleation for the aerosols observed. Various nitrated products, among them nitrophenols, are observed when air is used for the stripping. However, these studies did not clear the pilot plant stage, since BTEX degradation using a bioreactor carried out in parallel was so successful that the EB technology was judged to be noncompetitive. As for the latter, expensive equipment consisting of a stripper, the EB machine, and an aerosol precipitator would be required. The condensed aerosols are biorefractory and would require further treatment for detoxification.     

Effect of imputing markers from a low-density chip on the reliability of genomic breeding values in Holstein populations

The purpose of this study was to investigate the imputation error and loss of reliability of direct genomic values (DGV) or genomically enhanced breeding values (GEBV) when using genotypes imputed from a 3,000-marker single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel to a 50,000-marker SNP panel. Data consisted of genotypes of 15,966 European Holstein bulls from the combined EuroGenomics reference population. Genotypes with the low-density chip were created by erasing markers from 50,000-marker data. The studies were performed in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, and Sweden) using a BLUP model for prediction of DGV and in France using a genomic marker-assisted selection approach for prediction of GEBV. Imputation in both studies was done using a combination of the DAGPHASE 1.1 and Beagle 2.1.3 software. Traits considered were protein yield, fertility, somatic cell count, and udder depth. Imputation of missing markers and prediction of breeding values were performed using 2 different reference populations in each country: either a national reference population or a combined EuroGenomics reference population. Validation for accuracy of imputation and genomic prediction was done based on national test data. Mean imputation error rates when using national reference animals was 5.5 and 3.9% in the Nordic countries and France, respectively, whereas imputation based on the EuroGenomics reference data set gave mean error rates of 4.0 and 2.1%, respectively. Prediction of GEBV based on genotypes imputed with a national reference data set gave an absolute loss of 0.05 in mean reliability of GEBV in the French study, whereas a loss of 0.03 was obtained for reliability of DGV in the Nordic study. When genotypes were imputed using the EuroGenomics reference, a loss of 0.02 in mean reliability of GEBV was detected in the French study, and a loss of 0.06 was observed for the mean reliability of DGV in the Nordic study. Consequently, the reliability of DGV using the imputed SNP data was 0.38 based on national reference data, and 0.48 based on EuroGenomics reference data in the Nordic validation, and the reliability of GEBV using the imputed SNP data was 0.41 based on national reference data, and 0.44 based on EuroGenomics reference data in the French validation.     

Environmental and genetic variation of soybean seed protein content under Central European growing conditions

Seed protein content is important for both feed and food utilisation of soybean. In soybeans grown in Central Europe, considerable variation in protein content was due to seasonal influences, as demonstrated in different experiments from a breeding programme. In soybean genotypes of early maturity groups, average to high protein content (range 399—476 g kg⁻¹) was found in years with high air temperature and moderate rates of rainfall during the seed‐filling period, whereas seed protein content was drastically reduced (range 265–347 g kg⁻¹) in seasons of insufficient nitrogen fixation or higher amounts of precipitation during seed filling. In a set of 60 genotypes, protein content was increased both by late nitrogen fertilisation before the onset of seed filling and by inoculation of seed with nitrogen‐fixing rhizobia. Despite the high degree of environmental modification, genetic variation of seed protein content was considerable, and genotype × environment interaction was of low magnitude. Therefore selection of early maturing soybean genotypes with improved seed protein content appears to be feasible and is only limited by the moderately negative correlation between protein content and seed yield. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Short communication: Imputation performances of 3 low-density marker panels in beef and dairy cattle

Low-density chips are appealing alternative tools contributing to the reduction of genotyping costs. Imputation enables researchers to predict missing genotypes to recreate the denser coverage of the standard 50K (～50,000) genotype. Two alternative in silico chips were defined in this study that included markers selected to optimize minor allele frequency and spacing. The objective of this study was to compare the imputation accuracy of these custom low-density chips with a commercially available 3K chip. Data consisted of genotypes of 4,037 Holstein bulls, 1,219 Montbéliarde bulls, and 991 Blonde d'Aquitaine bulls. Criteria to select markers to include in low-density marker panels are described. To mimic a low-density genotype, all markers except the markers present on the low-density panel were masked in the validation population. Imputation was performed using the Beagle software. Combining the directed acyclic graph obtained with Beagle with the PHASEBOOK algorithm provides fast and accurate imputation that is suitable for routine genomic evaluations based on imputed genotypes. Overall, 95 to 99% of alleles were correctly imputed depending on the breed and the low-density chip used. The alternative low-density chips gave better results than the commercially available 3K chip. A low-density chip with 6,000 markers is a valuable genotyping tool suitable for both dairy and beef breeds. Such a tool could be used for preselection of young animals or large-scale screening of the female population.     

The impact of different hop compounds on the growth of selected beer spoilage bacteria in beer

Beer spoiling lactic acid bacteria are a major reason for quality complaints in breweries around the world. Spoilage by a variety of these bacteria can result in haze, sediment, slime, off-flavours and acidity. As these bacteria occur frequently in the brewing environment, using certain hop products that inhibit the growth of these spoilers could be a solution to prevent problems. To investigate the impact of seven different hop compounds (α-acids, iso-α-acids, tetrahydro-iso-α-acids, rho-iso-α-acids, xanthohumol, iso-xanthohumol and humulinones) on the growth of six major beer spoilage bacteria (Lactobacillus brevis. L. backi, L. coryniformis, L. lindneri, L. buchneri, Pediococcus damnosous), two concentrations (10 and 25 mg/L) of each hop substance were added to unhopped beer. The potential growth of the spoilage bacteria was investigated over 56 consecutive days. A comparison of the results shows a strong inhibition of growth of all spoilage bacteria at 25 mg/L of tetrahydro-iso-α-acids closely followed by α-acids as the second most inhibitory substance. The results showed a high resistance of L. brevis to all hop compounds as well as an inhibition of L. coryniformis and L. buchneri at low concentrations of most hop components. In comparison with the control sample, L. lindneri showed increased growth in the presence of some hop compounds (rho-iso-α-acids, xanthohumol, iso-xanthohumol, humulinones). © 2020 The Authors. Journal of the Institute of Brewing published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institute of Brewing & Distilling