Solutions to a combined problem of excessive hydrogen sulfide in biogas and struvite scaling.

The Woodman Point Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) in Western Australia has experienced two separate problems causing avoidable maintenance costs: the build-up of massive struvite (MgNH4PO4. 6H2O) scaling downstream of the anaerobic digester and the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) levels in the digester gas to levels that compromised gas engine operation and caused high operating costs on the gas scrubber. As both problems hang together with a chemical imbalance in the anaerobic digester, we decided to investigate whether both problems could be (feasibly and economically) addressed by a common solution (such as dosing of iron solutions to precipitate both sulfide and phosphate), or by using separate approaches. Laboratory results showed that, the hydrogen sulfide emission in digesters could be effectively and economically controlled by the addition of iron dosing. Slightly higher than the theoretical value of 1.5 mol of FeCl3 was required to precipitate 1 mol of dissolved sulfide inside the digester. Due to the high concentration of PO4(3-) in the digested sludge liquor, significantly higher iron is required for struvite precipitation. Iron dosing did not appear an economic solution for struvite control via iron phosphate formation. By taking advantage of the natural tendency of struvite formation in the digester liquid, it is possible to reduce the risk of struvite precipitation in and around the sludge-dewatering centrifuge by increasing the pH to precipitate struvite out before passing through the centrifuge. However, as the Mg2+/PO4(3-) molar ratio in digested sludge was low, by increasing the pH alone (using NaOH) the precipitation of PO4(3-) was limited by the amount of cations (Ca2+ and Mg2+) available in the sludge. Although this would reduce struvite precipitation in the centrifuge, it could not significantly reduce PO4(3-) recycling back to the plant. For long-term operation, maximum PO4(3-) reduction should be the ultimate aim to minimise PO4(3-) accumulation in the plant. Magnesium hydroxide liquid (MHL) was found to be the most cost-effective chemical to achieve this goal. It enhanced struvite precipitation from both, digested sludge and centrate to the point where more than 95% PO4(3-) reduction in the digested sludge was achieved.     

Wear and Creep Characteristics of a Carbon‐Derived Si3N4/SiC Micro/Nanocomposite

In the presented work some properties of a recently developed Si₃N₄/SiC micro/nanocomposite have been investigated. The material was tested using a pin on disc configuration. Under unlubricated sliding conditions using Si₃N₄ pin at 50 % humidity, the friction coefficient was in the range of 0,6 ‐ 0,7. The reduction of humidity resulted in a lower coefficient of friction, in vacuum the coefficient of friction had a value of about 0,6. The wear resistance in vacuum was significantly lower then that in air. The wear patterns on the Si₃N₄+SiC disc revealed that mechanical fracture was the wear controlling mechanism. Creep tests were realized in four point bending configuration in the temperature interval 1200‐1400 °C at stresses 50,100 and 150 MPa and the minimal creep deformation rate was established for each stress level. The activation energy, established from the minimal creep deformation had a value of about 360 kJ/mol and the stress exponent values were in the range of 0.8‐1.28. From the achieved stress exponents it can be assumed that under the studied load/temperature conditions the diffusion creep was the most probable creep controlling mechanism.     

Colloidal processing of polymer ceramic nanocomposite integral capacitors

Polymer ceramic composites form a suitable material system for low temperature fabrication of embedded capacitors appropriate for the MCM-L technology. Improved electrical properties such as permittivity can be achieved by efficient filling of polymers with high dielectric constant ceramic powders such as lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT) and barium titanate (BT). Photodefinable epoxies as the matrix polymer allow fine feature definition of the capacitor elements by conventional lithography techniques. The optimum weight percent of dispersant is tuned by monitoring the viscosity of the suspension. The dispersion mechanism (steric and electrostatic contribution) in a slightly polar solvent such as propylene glycol methyl ether acetate (PGMEA) is investigated from electrophoretic measurements. A high positive zeta potential is observed in the suspension, which suggests a strong contribution of electrostatic stabilization. By optimizing the particle packing using a bimodal distribution and modified processing methodology, a dielectric constant greater than 135 was achieved in PMN-PT/epoxy system. Suspensions are made with the lowest PGMEA content to ensure the efficiency of the dispersion and efficient particle packing in the dried film. Improved colloidal processing of nanoparticle-filled epoxy is a promising method to obtain ultra-thin capacitor films (<2/spl mu/m) with high capacitance density and improved yield. Capacitance of 35 nF/cm/sup 2/ was achieved with the thinnest films (2.5-3.0 /spl mu/m).     

Development of a Continuous Segmented Flow Tubular Reactor and the “Scale‐out” Concept – In Search of Perfect Powders

The synthesis of powders with controlled shape and narrow particle size distributions is still a major challenge for many industries. A continuous Segmented Flow Tubular Reactor (SFTR) has been developed to overcome homogeneity and scale‐up problems encountered when using batch reactors. Supersaturation is created by mixing the co‐reactants in a micromixer inducing precipitation; the suspension is then segmented into identical micro‐volumes by a non‐miscible fluid and sent through a tube. These micro‐volumes are more homogeneous when compared to large batch reactors leading to narrower size distributions, better particle morphology, polymorph selectivity and stoichiometry. All these features have been demonstrated on single tube SFTR for different chemical systems. To increase productivity for commercial application the SFTR is being “scaled‐out” by multiplying the number of tubes running in parallel instead of scaling‐up by increasing their size. The versatility of the multi‐tube unit will allow changes in type of precipitate with a minimum of new investment as new chemistry can be researched, developed and optimised in a single tube SFTR and then transferred to the multi‐tube unit for powder production.     

Reliability investigation of 0.07-/spl mu/m InGaAs-InAlAs-InP HEMT MMICs with pseudomorphic In/sub 0.75/Ga/sub 0.25/As channel

The authors have investigated the reliability performance of G-band (183 GHz) monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) amplifiers fabricated using 0.07-/spl mu/m T-gate InGaAs-InAlAs-InP HEMTs with pseudomorphic In/sub 0.75/Ga/sub 0.25/As channel on 3-in wafers. Life test was performed at two temperatures (T/sub 1/ = 200 /spl deg/C and T/sub 2/ = 215 /spl deg/C), and the amplifiers were stressed at V/sub ds/ of 1 V and I/sub ds/ of 250 mA/mm in a N/sub 2/ ambient. The activation energy is as high as 1.7 eV, achieving a projected median-time-to-failure (MTTF) /spl ap/ 2 /spl times/ 10/sup 6/ h at a junction temperature of 125 /spl deg/C. MTTF was determined by 2-temperature constant current stress using /spl Delta/G/sub mp/ = -20% as the failure criteria. The difference of reliability performance between 0.07-/spl mu/m InGaAs-InAlAs-InP HEMT MMICs with pseudomorphic In/sub 0.75/Ga/sub 0.25/As channel and 0.1-/spl mu/m InGaAs-InAlAs-InP HEMT MMICs with In/sub 0.6/Ga/sub 0.4/As channel is also discussed. The achieved high-reliability result demonstrates a robust 0.07-/spl mu/m pseudomorphic InGaAs-InAlAs-InP HEMT MMICs production technology for G-band applications.     

The hot compaction behaviour of woven oriented polypropylene fibres and tapes. I. Mechanical properties

The aim of this work was to establish the important parameters that control the hot compaction behaviour of woven oriented polypropylene. Five commercial woven cloths, based on four different polypropylene polymers, were selected so that the perceived important variables could be studied. These include the mechanical properties of the original oriented tapes or fibres, the geometry of the oriented reinforcement (fibres or tapes), the mechanical properties of the base polymer (which are crucially dependant on the molecular weight and morphology), and the weave style. The five cloths were chosen so as to explore the boundaries of these various parameters, i.e. low and high molecular weight: circular or rectangular reinforcement (fibres or tapes): low or high tape initial orientation: coarse or fine weave.A vital aspect of this study was the realisation that hot compacted polypropylene could be envisaged as a composite, comprising an oriented ‘reinforcement’ bound together by a matrix phase, formed by melting and recrystallisation of the original oriented material. We have established the crucial importance of the properties of the melted and recrystallised matrix phase, especially the level of ductility, in controlling the properties of the hot compacted composite.     

Thermal conductivity of doped PbTe-based solid solutions with off-center impurities

The coefficients of thermopower and electrical and thermal conductivity in the PbTe_0.8Se_0.1 S _0.1 solid solution with electron concentration (4.6–54) × 10¹⁸ cm^?3 are studied in the range of 85–300 K (and in some cases up to 700 K). The temperature dependences of electrical and thermal conductivity indicate that the low-temperature electron and phonon scattering initiated by the off-center impurity of sulfur exists. The temperature dependences of the electronic and lattice components of thermal conductivity are calculated in the approximation of a parabolic spectrum and electron scattering by acoustic phonons and neutral substitutional impurities. The lattice thermal conductivity is found to have a feature in the form of a shallow minimum in the range of 85–250 K. A similar feature, while not so clearly pronounced, is found to exist also in Pb_1?x Sn_xTe_1?x Se_x alloys (x≥0.15) with an off-center tin impurity. An analysis of the possible origins of this effect suggests that, at low temperatures, the Lorentz numbers L of the materials under study are smaller than the L₀ numbers employed which correspond to the above scattering mechanisms. The cause of the decrease in L is related to electron scattering at two-level systems, a mechanism whose effect grows with increasing electron energy. An analysis of experimental data obtained at high temperatures, as well as on undoped samples with the lowest possible carrier concentrations, yields the values of L for samples with different electron densities. The minimum value L/L₀ = 0.75 is obtained for a lightly doped sample at ～130 K.     

A simple impulsiveness correction factor for control of electromagnetic interference in dynamic wireless applications

The emerging software defined radio technologies will be an enabler for a new generation of dynamic wireless systems. It will also open up the possibility of allocating frequencies in a, more dynamic way than today. From an intersystem-interference point of view, this can cause unforeseen problems to occur due to the increased complexity in such applications. In such applications, a measure indicating whether or not a frequency band is possible to use from an electromagnetic interference point of view, must be found. A simple approach is to use the measured total average interference power within the receiver band. Since the interference impact on modern digital communication systems from an interference signal does not only depend on the power but also on the actual waveform of the interference signal, some kind of quality measure of the average-power approach would be convenient to use. In this paper, we introduce a simple quality measure of the average-power approach so that a rough adjustment for the interference-waveform properties can be done.     

Quadrature Mismatch Shaping for Digital-to-Analog Converters

Quadrature sigma-delta analog-to-digital converters require a feedback path for both the I and the Q parts of the complex feedback signal. If two separate multibit feedback digital-to-analog converters (DACs) are used, mismatch among the unit DAC elements leads to additional mismatch noise in the output spectrum as well as an I/Q imbalance. This paper proposes new quadrature bandpass (QBP) mismatch shaping techniques. In our approach, the I and Q DACs are merged into one complex DAC, which leads to near-perfect I/Q balance. To select the unit DAC elements of the complex multibit DAC, the well-known butterfly shuffler and tree structure are generalized towards a complex structure, and necessary constraints for their correct functioning are derived. Next, a very efficient first-order QBP shaper implementation is proposed. Finally, the newly presented complex structures are simulated to prove their effectiveness and are compared with each other with respect to performance     

Viability of bifidobacteria in commercial yogurt products in North Carolina during refrigerated storage

Fifty-eight commercial yogurt products of seven brands (which claimed to include bifidobacteria) were obtained from local stores in Greensboro, North Carolina, USA. These products were examined at 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks for the viability of bifidobacteria and yogurt starter culture during refrigerated storage at 4°C. Our results showed that bifidobacteria counts were variable, ranging from 0 to 5.5 log cfu/mL. The average yogurt starter culture counts ranged from 5.20 to 8.87 log cfu/mL and 7.51–8.94 log cfu/mL for Lactobacillus delbrueckii spp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus , respectively. Of the 58 products tested, only 44 products (76%) contained viable cultures. Viability of bifidobacteria in yogurt samples remained within the same levels during 3 weeks of storage at 4°C; however, the bacterial count started to decline during the fourth week. These results suggest optimal beneficial consumption of yogurt foods with live bifidobacteria should occur within 3 weeks of production. Results obtained from this research could be used by the industry to develop new technologies to ensure consumers receive high-quality products.