Gallium gradients in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin‐film solar cells

The gallium gradient in Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ (CIGS) layers, which forms during the two industrially relevant deposition routes, the sequential and co‐evaporation processes, plays a key role in the device performance of CIGS thin‐film modules. In this contribution, we present a comprehensive study on the formation, nature, and consequences of gallium gradients in CIGS solar cells. The formation of gallium gradients is analyzed in real time during a rapid selenization process by in situ X‐ray measurements. In addition, the gallium grading of a CIGS layer grown with an in‐line co‐evaporation process is analyzed by means of depth profiling with mass spectrometry. This gallium gradient of a real solar cell served as input data for device simulations. Depth‐dependent occurrence of lateral inhomogeneities on the µm scale in CIGS deposited by the co‐evaporation process was investigated by highly spatially resolved luminescence measurements on etched CIGS samples, which revealed a dependence of the optical bandgap, the quasi‐Fermi level splitting, transition levels, and the vertical gallium gradient. Transmission electron microscopy analyses of CIGS cross‐sections point to a difference in gallium content in the near surface region of neighboring grains. Migration barriers for a copper‐vacancy‐mediated indium and gallium diffusion in CuInSe₂ and CuGaSe₂ were calculated using density functional theory. The migration barrier for the In_Cu antisite in CuGaSe₂ is significantly lower compared with the Ga_Cu antisite in CuInSe₂, which is in accordance with the experimentally observed Ga gradients in CIGS layers grown by co‐evaporation and selenization processes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Time‐resolved investigation of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 growth and Ga gradient formation during fast selenisation of metallic precursors

Ga segregation at the backside of Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ solar cell absorbers is a commonly observed phenomenon for a large variety of sequential fabrication processes. Here, we investigate the correlation between Se incorporation, phase formation and Ga segregation during fast selenisation of Cu–In–Ga precursor films in elemental selenium vapour. Se incorporation and phase formation are analysed by real‐time synchrotron‐based X‐ray diffraction and fluorescence analysis. Correlations between phase formation and depth distributions are gained by interrupting the process at several points and by subsequent ex situ cross‐sectional electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The presented results reveal that the main share of Se incorporation takes place within a few seconds during formation of In–Se at the top part of the film, accompanied by outdiffusion of In out of a ternary Cu–In–Ga phase. Surprisingly, CuInSe₂ starts to form at the surface on top of the In–Se layer, leading to an intermediate double graded Cu depth distribution. The remaining Ga‐rich metal phase at the back is finally selenised by indiffusion of Se. On the basis of a proposed growth model, we discuss possible strategies and limitations for the avoidance of Ga segregation during fast selenisation of metallic precursors. Solar cells made from samples selenised with a total annealing time of 6.5 min reached conversion efficiencies of up to 14.2 % (total area, without anti‐reflective coating). The evolution of the Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ diffraction signals reveals that the minimum process time for high‐quality Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ absorbers is limited by cation ordering rather than Se incorporation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Post mortemRelease of Fish White Muscle α-Actinin as a Marker of Disorganisation

α-Actinin release and its degradation from myofibrils Z-line were studied in post mortem white dorsal muscle from bass and sea trout stored at 4°C and 10°C. Using α-actinin specific antibodies, we show that this protein is rapidly released within the first 24 h for the two species, and reaches a plateau within 4 days. Proteolysis take place very rapidly in bass muscle yielding 80 and 40 kDa fragments from α-actinin as major bands of proteolysis. Sea trout muscle is more resistant, and muscle stored at 4°C is not significantly α-actinin degraded even 10 days after death. In the case of sea trout muscle stored at 10°C, an increasing quantity of 80 and 40 kDa fragment can be observed after the third day. These results show that release and proteolysis of α-actinin are time- and temperature-dependent processes that take place at the early stages of fish storage. Furthermore, we observed that proteolysis of α-actinin seems to be dependent on fish species. In both species studied, the early release of α-actinin comes before the degradation of released molecules, and appears as a biphasic process throughout the disorganisation of post mortem muscle in fish cold-stored above 0°C.     

Novel insights on the impact of top water on Steam‐Assisted Gravity Drainage in a point bar reservoir

As efforts are made to efficiently exploit and recover bitumen resources in Canada, increasingly more complex reservoirs in the Athabasca area continue to challenge the application of Steam‐Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) technology. Several studies have been done to investigate the impact of heterogeneities/complexities such as shale barriers, lean zones, and top and bottom water on the performance of the SAGD process. However, the literature is deficient for point bar deposits with top water zones, a common occurrence in oil sands systems. This study, by using thermal reservoir simulation, examines SAGD performance in a point bar deposit reservoir where an overlying top water and an inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) is present. The results show that where the top water is unconfined and steam injection pressure is higher than that of the top water zone, there is a loss of thermal energy, but the top water does not impact steam chamber development. At steam injection pressure lower than that of the top water zone, top water continuously drains into the reservoir and constrains the size of the chamber. However, the IHS zone helps to delay drainage of the top water into the chamber when steam is injected at underbalanced conditions. Finally, under proper steam injection pressure conditions, top water production can be considerably delayed.     

Frame selection for OCR from video stream of book flipping

Multimedia Tools and Applications - Optical Character Recognition (OCR) in video stream of flipping pages is a challenging task because flipping at random speed causes difficulties in identifying...     

A comparison of various rheological properties for modelling the kinetics of thermal softening of potato tissue (c.v. Monalisa) by water cooking and pressure steaming

The kinetics which can be used to describe thermal softening of potato tissue by water cooking and pressure steaming were established and the temperature dependence of rheological and textural properties, using six different instrumental objective methods as firmness indicators, was determined within the temperature range of 100–122 °C. In water cooking at 100 °C and in steaming at 100, 112 and 117 °C, the thermal softening was best expressed by one simple pseudo first-order kinetic mechanism, which was considered to be the response to the changes in the pectic material in the cell wall and interlamellar region. Tension energy was the best rheological property for establishing the kinetics of softening of potato by water cooking, whereas maximum shear force was the best method of representing the tissue softening by steaming, using first-order models. Steaming at 122 °C caused overcooking of the tissue, even for short times. At this high temperature, rheological parameters (compression, tension and creep compliance) and textural properties from Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) fitted second-order models. When second-order models were used, the Arrhenius equation was significant for chewiness, indicating that this textural property can be useful for detecting overcooking caused by prolonged pressure steaming in the experimental temperature range.     

Solar drying of sawn lumber in Spain

A solar heated experimental drying kiln was installed in Madrid (INIA-Forest Industries Department) to study the efficiency of solar drying of sawn lumber in Spain, as compared with normal air drying. The kiln has been designed as a low cost semi-greenhouse type, but was equipped with a semi-automated control of the drying schedules. The performance of the solar kiln has been studied during ten test runs over a period of two years particularly with respect to drying rate, initial and final wood MC, reliability and efficiency. The results have proven that the solar kiln is capable of drying (economically) from an initial moisture content of 70 to 80%, to a final MC of 8 to 10% up to 3.5 times faster than air drying. With respect to checks, splits and internal stresses, the final wood quality is mostly better, not only compared to normal air drying but also to conventional kiln drying.     

Immunoadjuvant activity of oral Lactobacillus casei: influence of dose on the secretory immune response and protective capacity in intestinal infections.

Lactobacilli, often used as effectors of host functions, could play an important role in maintaining human health by controlling other intestinal microorganisms capable of producing harmful effects. Using an experimental model, we studied the effect of different oral doses of Lactobacillus casei on the secretory IgA response and the protective capacity of the microorganism in preventing intestinal infections. The optimization of the protective dose of Lb. casei by previous feeding and the use of the lactobacillus as an immunological way to control enteric infections were investigated. We found that conventional mice were protected against infection with Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli by previous feeding for 2 consecutive days with a daily Lb. casei dose of 1.2 x 10(9) cfu/mouse. Previous feeding for 7 d proved less effective, and feeding for 5 d afforded no protection at all. We were also able to demonstrate that the protective effect of Lb. casei against Sal. typhimurium and Esch. coli was connected mainly with the high level of IgA antipathogen antibodies present in intestinal secretions. beta-Glucuronidase (EC 3.2.1.31) and beta-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23) activities, measured both in the intestinal fluid and histological samples, showed a marked increase in intestinal inflammatory response on day 5 of feeding. These results show that Lb. casei plays an important role in the prevention of enteric infections, a low dose being enough for protection against intestinal infections by increasing IgA secretion into the intestinal lumen, thus providing adequate defences for the mucosal surface. A previously administered dose of this magnitude could therefore be used as an oral adjuvant in preventing enteric infections.     

Anatomic basis of continuous axillary block of the brachial plexus with thoracic reservoir

Although continuous axillary block is effective for periods of up to four to six weeks, pain clinic patients with severe chronic pain in the upper extremities, mainly resulting from neuropathic disease, can require continuous drug delivery by catheter-reservoir for up to three months or longer. We studied possible locations for implanting reservoirs or catheters from the perivascular axillary space in fresh cadavers, checking for possible vascular or nerve damage after applying the usual technique for reservoir implantation. The ideal location for the reservoir is the subcutaneous tissue of the homolateral infraclavicular space of the anterior side of the thorax. The customary procedures for inserting the catheter along the subcutaneous route that extends from the perivascular axillary space to the reservoir carry no risk of damaging vascular or nerve structures.     

Comparison of factor VIII-related antigen and erythrocyte sedimentation rate in outpatient management of vasculitis

Electroimmunodiffusion (Laurell rocket) determinations of factor VIII-related antigen in plasma were ordered to determine the cost/benefit ratio for factor VIII-related antigen as a putative test for endothelial damage in suspected vasculitis. Twenty-seven consecutive patients referred for vasculitis or suspected vasculitis were identified and followed up for an average of 9.1 +/- months (range: one to thirty-three months) in a prospective, unblinded study performed in a clinic, associated with a 1054-bed inner-city university hospital. There was no difference in Westergren erythrocyte sedimentation rate (WESR) in patients with final diagnosis of systemic vasculitis (SV) (38 +/- 12 mm/hour) compared to those without vasculitis (NV) (27 +/- 7) as the final diagnosis. The mean plasma concentration of factor VIII-related antigen was significantly elevated in SV (344 +/- 100%) when compared with NV (147 +/- 39%) (P < 0.016). The factor VIII-related antigen test in this study was 2.56 times more likely (crude odds ratio) than the WESR to contribute to a change in diagnosis or therapy (P = 0.016). Positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV) for factor VIII-related antigen (abnormal at greater than 220% of the normal value) were both 70%. PPV and NPV for WESR were 56% and 86%, respectively. The factor VIII-related test was less cost-effective than the WESR in the follow-up period unless it was important to define complete remission or differentiate vasculitis flare from infection. The authors conclude that factor VIII-related antigen is a useful test in the initial diagnosis of vasculitis.