Reply to comments on "Derivation of numerical values for the World Health Organization guidelines for recreational waters"

The contribution addressed reveals an optimistic design philosophy likely to systematically underestimate risk in epidemiologic studies into the health effects of bathing water exposures. The authors seem to recommend that data on the 'exposure' measure (i.e. water quality) in such studies should be acquired in a similar manner to that used for regulatory sampling. This approach may compromise the quality of the epidemiologic investigations undertaken. It may result in imprecise estimates of exposure because it ignores the fact that regulatory timescales and spatial resolution (even if artificially compressed to a bathing day) can mask large spatial and temporal variability in water quality. If this variability is ignored by taking some mean value and attributing that to all of those exposed in a period at a study location, many bathers may be misclassified and the studies may be biased to a 'no-effect' conclusion. A more appropriate approach is to maximise the precision of the epidemiologic investigations by measurement of individual exposure (or water quality) at the place and time of the exposure, as has been done in randomised volunteer studies in the UK and Germany. The precise epidemiologic relationships linking 'exposure' with 'illness' can then be related to the probability of exposure to particular water quality by a 'normal bather' using the known probability distribution of the exposure variable (i.e. faecal indicator concentration) in the regulated bathing waters. We suggest that any research protocol where poor sampling design for water quality assessment is justified because regulatory monitoring is equally imprecise may be fundamentally flawed. The rationale for this assessment is that the epidemiology is the starting point and evidence-base for 'standards'. If precision is not maximised at this stage in the process it compromises the credibility of the standards design process. The negative effects of the approach advocated in this 'comment' are illustrated using published research findings used to derive the figures illustrated in Wymer et al. [2005. Comment on derivation of numerical values for the World Health Organization guidelines for recreational waters. Water Research 39, 2774-2777].     

Mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in Europe in 2000 and their scenarios until 2020

The paper reviews the current state of knowledge regarding European emissions of mercury and presents estimates of European emissions of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources for the year 2000. This information was then used as a basis for Hg emission scenario development until the year 2020. Combustion of coal in power plants and residential heat furnaces generates about half of the European emissions being 239 tonnes. The coal combustion is followed by the production of caustic soda with the use of the Hg cell process (17%). Major points of mercury emission generation in the mercury cell process include: by-product hydrogen stream, end box ventilation air, and cell room ventilation air. This technology is now being changed to other caustic soda production technologies and further reduction of Hg emissions is expected in this connection. The third category on the list of the largest Hg emitters in Europe is cement production (about 13%). The largest emissions were estimated for Russia (the European part of the country), contributing with about 27% to the European emissions, followed by Poland, Germany, Spain, Ukraine, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. Most of these countries use coal as a major source of energy in order to meet the electricity and heat demands. In general, countries in the Central and Eastern Europe generated the main part of the European emissions in 2000. Emission reductions between 20% and 80% of the 2000 emission amounts can be obtained by the year 2020, as estimated by various scenarios.     

THE PRODUCTION OF FOAM ALUMINIUM ALLOY BY LOW-PRESSURE INFILTRATION METHOD

１．ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＴｈｅｆｏａｍｍｅｔａｌｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｉｓａｎｅｗｋｉｎｄｏｆｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｗｉｔｈｍｏｒｅａｎｄｍｏｒｅａｐｐｌｉｅｄｓｃｏｐｅ〔１〕．Ｉｔｈａｓｃｅｌｌｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｃｏｎｔａｉｎｉｎｇａｉｒｂｕｂｂｌｅｉｎｓｉｄｅ,ａｎｄｈａｓｔｈｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｔｉｅｓｏｆｌｏｗｄｅｎｓｉｔｙ,ｓｏｕｎｄｉｎｓｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ,ｈｅａｔｉｎｓｕｌａｔｉｏｎ,ｓｈｏｃｋａｂｓｏｒｐｔｉｏｎａｎｄｓｏｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｆｏａｍｍｅｔａｌｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｈａｓｂｅ…     

EFFECT OF PRECIPITANT ON THE PROPERTIES OF ULTRAFINE YTTRIA POW DER PRODUCED BY PRE CIPITATION METHOD

１．ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＨｉｇｈｒｅａｃｔｉｖｉｔｙａｎｄｇｏｏｄｐｈｙｓｉｃａｌａｎｄｃｈｅｍｉｃａｌｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｅｉｔｙｏｆｕｌｔｒａｆｉｎｅｃｅｒａｍｉｃｐｏｗｄｅｒｓｅｎａｂｌｅｓｄｅｎｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｓａｔｌｏｗｅｒｔｅｍｐｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓａｎｄｍｉｃｒｏｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｏｎａｌｅｖｅｌｏｆ１～１００ｎｍ〔１２〕．Ｙｔｔｒｉｕｍｏｘｉｄｅｉｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｃｅｒａｍｉｃｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｓａｎｄｉｓｕｓｅ…     

热处理Y—TZP的抗断性

本文对三种显微结构不同的钇稳定ZrO2陶瓷的断裂特性作了研宛。在1650℃下热处理2小时和10小时即可得到不同的显微结构。粗晶ZrO2的断裂韧性明显增加，而其强度则未有相应的下降，这主要是由于应力诱导相变的巨大影响所致。强度结果符合韦伯尔分布函数规律，结果表明粗晶材料具有较高的抗裂纹能力。     

Evaluation of chemical indicators for tracking and apportionment of phosphorus sources to Table Rock Lake in Southwest Missouri, USA

This work evaluated the suitability of selected chemical species as indicators for tracking and apportionment of point and non-point phosphorus sources within the Table Rock Lake watershed in Southwest Missouri, USA. The species were evaluated with respect to their uniqueness to specific source types, their ability to be detected in both sources and receiving waters, and the consistency of their concentration ratios to phosphorus. Four sampling events were conducted at 15 sample locations in one year to collect water samples for measuring the concentrations of total and dissolved phosphorus, seven anions, and 19 major and trace elements. Current analytical methods were sensitive enough for quantification of most of the chemical species in both sources and the receiving waterbody. Due to the high seasonal variation of phosphorus concentrations in source samples, no chemical species had consistent concentration ratios to phosphorus across source types. However, several chemicals were found to be unique to specific sources; bromide ion can be used as a unique indicator for the effluent of the largest wastewater treatment plant in the watershed.     

Variability of invertebrate abundance in drinking water distribution systems in the Netherlands in relation to biostability and sediment volumes

A survey of invertebrates in drinking water from treatment works, internal taps and hydrants on mains was carried out by almost all water companies in the Netherlands from September 1993 to August 1995. Aquatic sow bugs (Asellidae, 1-12 mm) and oligochaeta worms (Oligochaeta, 1-100 mm), both known to have caused rare though embarrassing consumer complaints, were found to form 98% of the mean biomass in water flushed from mains. Their numbers in the mains water ranged up to 1500 (mean 37) Asellidae m⁻³ and up to 9900 (mean 135) Oligochaeta m⁻³. Smaller crustaceans (0.5-2 mm) dominated the numbers in water from mains. e.g. water fleas (Cladocera and Copepoda up to 14,000 m⁻³). Common invertebrates in treated water and in tap water were Rotifera (<1 mm) and nematode worms (Nematoda, <2 mm). No Asellidae, large Oligochaeta (>5 mm) or other large invertebrates were found in 1560 samples of 200 l treated water or tap water.Large variations in invertebrate abundance were found within and between distribution systems. Of the variability of mean biomass in mains per system, 55%, 60% and 63% could statistically be explained by differences in the Biofilm Formation Rate, non-particulate organic matter and the permanganate index of the treated water of the treatment works respectively. A similar correlation was found between mean invertebrate biomass and mean sediment volumes in the distribution systems (R² = 52%).     

Evaluation and modeling of benzalkonium chloride inhibition and biodegradation in activated sludge

The inhibitory effect and biodegradation of benzalkonium chloride (BAC), a mixture of alkyl benzyl dimethyl ammonium chlorides with different alkyl chain lengths, was investigated at a concentration range from 5 to 20 mg/L and different biomass concentrations in an activated sludge system. A solution containing glucose and mineral salts was used as the wastewater in all the assays performed. The inhibition of respiratory enzymes was identified as the mode of action of BAC as a result of oxygen uptake rate analysis performed at BAC concentrations ranging between 5 and 70 mg/L. The glucose degradation in the activated sludge at different BAC and biomass concentrations was well-described with Monod kinetics with competitive inhibition. The half-saturation inhibition constant (K_I) which is equivalent to EC₅₀ of BAC for the activated sludge tested ranged between 0.12 and 3.60 mg/L. The high K_I values were recorded at low BAC-to-biomass ratios, i.e. less than 10 mg BAC/g VSS, at which BAC was almost totally adsorbed to biomass and not bioavailable. BAC degradation started as soon as glucose was totally consumed. Although BAC was almost totally adsorbed on the biomass, it was degraded completely. Therefore, BAC degradation was modeled using two-phase biodegradation kinetics developed in this study. This model involves rapid partitioning of BAC to biomass and consecutive degradation in both aqueous and solid phases. The aqueous phase BAC degradation rate was twenty times, on average, higher than the solid phase degradation rate. The specific aqueous (k_I1) and solid (k_I2) phase BAC utilization rate constants were 1.25 and 0.31 mg BAC/g VSS h, respectively. The findings of this study would help to understand the reason of extensive distribution of quaternary ammonium compounds in wastewater treatment plant effluents and in natural water systems although QACs are biodegradable, and develop strategies to avoid their release and accumulation in the environment.     

Treatment of oily waters using vermiculite

The main objective of this study was to examine the removal of oil from water by expanded and hydrophobized vermiculite. A pH of 9 showed a higher removal efficiency of oil by vermiculite. Oil removal efficiencies at pH 9 were found to be 79%, 93%, 90%, 57% for standard mineral oil (SMO), Canola oil (CO), Kutwell oil (KUT45), refinery effluent (RE), respectively, in the case of expanded vermiculite, and 56%, 58%, 47%, 43% for SMO, CO, KUT45 and RE, respectively, for hydrophobized vermiculite. Kinetic data satisfied both the Lagergren and Ho models. Equilibrium studies showed that the Langmuir isotherm was the best-fit isotherm for oil removal by both expanded and hydrophobized vermiculite. The data showed a higher adsorptive capacity by the expanded vermiculite compared to the hydrophobized vermiculite. Desorption studies showed that the expanded vermiculite did not desorb oil to the same extent compared to hydrophobized vermiculite. The Freundlich isotherm was the best-fit model for desorption. Expanded vermiculite showed better retention than hydrophobic vermiculite. The results showed that the expanded vermiculite had a greater affinity for oil than hydrophobized vermiculite.     

Comparative economic analysis of the impacts of mean cell retention time and denitrification on aeration systems

Biological nutrient removal is practiced in various modifications of the activated sludge process (ASP) throughout the world. This paper compares conventional, nitrifying-only and combined nitrifying/denitrifying (NDN) processes. The authors performed 113 oxygen transfer efficiency measurements with the off-gas method over 20 years. This dataset was analysed and used to perform an economic analysis for three example scenarios, one for each layout (conventional, nitrifying-only and NDN). Field oxygen transfer efficiency and relevant plant operative costs and credits were considered (i.e., aeration cost, sludge disposal cost, methane production credit). The conclusion is that NDN operations always have lower aeration costs, and generally have the lowest combined operating cost. Reduced aeration costs result because of improved aeration efficiency at higher mean cell retention times and the use of nitrate as an electron acceptor. The improved aeration efficiency overcomes the increased oxygen required at higher cell retention time due to cell decay.