Potential options to reduce GHG emissions in Venezuela

This paper presents a summary of the technologies and practices that could be implemented in Venezuela in order to contribute to both climate change mitigation and national development efforts. The mitigation analysis concentrates on options to reduce CO₂ emissions generated from the energy sector and land-use change.

From the mitigation options analyzed for the energy sector it was determined that the most effective are those in the transportation sector (switching to larger capacity vehicles, reduced private vehicle share, and switching fuels for public transportation from gasoline to natural gas), both in terms of contribution to emissions reduction and costs. Regarding the options for industry, boilers conversion from liquids to natural gas shows negative cost, but to a considerably lower extent that for the transportation sector. Efficiency improvements of natural gas boilers, which presents close to zero cost, is more effective in reducing emissions than boiler conversion. Increase in hydro power generation is the alternative with the highest total cost but it is very effective in reducing emissions.

From the mitigation options analyzed for land-use change, it was established that the forest sector has a considerable potential for reducing CO₂ emissions through the adoption of sustainable forest practices, especially by slowing the rate of forest loss and degradation. Maintenance of already existing biomass in natural forests should be the first priority of forest measures to reduce the amount of carbon released to the atmosphere. Forest protection and management of native forest represent the two options with the highest carbon conservation potential and the lowest carbon unit cost. Expansion of the forest cover through the development of intensive forest plantations also presents a high potential to offset carbon emissions in Venezuela.

An analysis of the barriers to mitigation options implementation shows that in the energy sector, low energy prices represent the main barrier to any mitigation program. Another important limitation to mitigation strategies implementation is the lack of institutional capacity and legal instruments for developing the mitigation measures. In the forest sector the primary causes of forest clearing in the country are not related to forest activities, so the definition of feasible mitigation options will depend upon a good understanding of other economic sectors and how they account for land-use change. Land tenure, rural poverty, political interests, and weak implementation of land-use planning instruments and environmental laws are considered to be the key limitations to any effort dealing with forest conservation. Land tenure, economic factors, and lack of incentives represent some of the most important barriers to the development of forest plantations and agroforestry systems in the country.     

Effect of Ultrafiltration on Anthocyanin and Flavonol Content of Black Currant Juice (Ribes nigrum L.)

This paper evaluates the efficiency of ultrafiltration and the effects of processing on the total anthocyanin and flavonol contents of black currant juice at chosen operational conditions. Ultrafiltration of black currant juices was carried out using Biomax 100?kDa polyethersulfone membrane. Ultrafiltration was used to process the juice prior concentration by reverse osmosis; with the aim to enhance the efficiency of the concentration process in terms of permeate flux. To avoid the fouling of the membrane, the juices were depectinized with Panzym Super E liquid enzyme preparation. The ultrafiltration was carried out at a transmembrane pressure of 2?bars and the operating temperature of 25?°C. The effect of processing on the valuable anthocyanin and flavonol content of the juices was evaluated based on the results of high-performance liquid chromatography analyses. The article includes detailed analyses of anthocyanin and flavonol compounds of the enzyme treated and ultrafiltered juice as compared with the original juice. The results indicate that, due to the enzymatic treatment, the valuable compound content of the juice increases. However, the ultrafiltration process resulted in a significant loss of a valuable content; 54% of total flavonol and 50% of total anthocyanins maintained in ultrafiltered juice when compared to the feed samples.     

The hydroxycinnamic acid content of barley and brewers’ spent grain (BSG) and the potential to incorporate phenolic extracts of BSG as antioxidants into fruit beverages

The hydroxycinnamic acid (HA) content of starting barley for brewers’ spent grains (BSG), whole BSG and phenolic extracts from BSG was measured using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and correlated with antioxidant potential. The effect of BSG phenolic extracts on antioxidant activity of fruit beverages was also assessed (using the total phenolic content (TPC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays). The concentration of HA present in barley extract and BSG was in the order of ferulic acid (FA), p-coumaric acid (p-CA) derivatives, FA derivatives, p-CA, caffeic acid (CA) and CA derivatives. Results suggested that brewing and roasting decreased the HA content. Antioxidant activity was significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with caffeic acid (R² = 0.8309) and total HA (R² = 0.3942) concentrations. Addition of extracts to fruit beverages resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) increase in antioxidant activity of cranberry juice, measured by the FRAP assay. In vitro digestion significantly (P < 0.05) reduced TPC, DPPH and FRAP activity of the fruit beverages.     

Antioxidant,immunomodulatory and antiproliferative effects of gelatin hydrolysates from seabass (Lates calcarifer) skins

This study investigated the antioxidant, immunomodulatory and antiproliferative potentials of gelatin hydrolysates from seabass skins in cell model systems. Gelatin hydrolysates were extracted from seabass skins using different processes and enzyme concentrations. The ability of the hydrolysates to protect against H₂O₂‐induced DNA damage was assessed on U937 cells using the Comet assay, and one of the samples showed DNA protective effects. All samples showed immunomodulatory potential by significantly (P < 0.05) reducing interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and IL‐1β production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Antiproliferative activities of seabass skin hydrolysates were measured using human colon cancer (Caco‐2) and liver cancer (HepG2) cell lines as the model cell cultures. The inhibition of cell proliferation of Caco‐2 and HepG2 cancer cells occurred in a dose‐dependent manner at concentrations of 1–25 mg mL^?1. Therefore, seabass skin hydrolysates prepared using an appropriate process could serve as a potential functional food ingredient with various health benefits.