Effects of cooling rate on mechanical properties of near-eutectic tin-lead solder joints

This paper reports the results of a study on the effect of the cooling rate during solidification on the shear creep and low cycle shear fatigue behavior of 60 Sn/40 Pb solder joints, and on bulk solder tensile properties. Solder joints were made with three different initial microstructures by quenching, air-cooling and furnace-cooling. They have similar steady-state strain rates under creep at relatively high shear stresses (i.e. in the matrix creep region) but creep at quite different strain rates at lower shear stresses (i.e. in the grain boundary creep region). These results are ascribed to the refined grain size and less lamellar phase morphology that results on increasing the cooling rate. Tensile tests on bulk solders that were cold-worked, quenched and furnace-cooled show that a faster cooling rate decreases the ultimate strength and increases the ductility at low strain rates. The fatigue life of quenched solder joints is shown to be longer than that of the furnace-cooled joints.     

Creep behavior of the ternary 95.5Sn-3.9Ag-0.6Cu solder—Part I: As-cast condition

The compression creep behavior was studied for the ternary solder alloy 95.5Sn-3.9Ag-0.6Cu in the as-cast condition. Samples were tested under stresses of 2–45 MPa and temperatures of −25–160°C. There was a significant variability in the creep curve shape, strain magnitude, and steady-state strain-rate properties. A multivariable linear-regression analysis of the steady-state strain-rate data, using the sinh-law stress representation, indicated two mechanisms distinguished by low- and high-temperature regimes of −25–75°C and 75–160°C, respectively. The sinh-law stress exponent (n) and apparent-activation energy (ΔH) in the −25–75°C regime were 4.4 ± 0.7 kJ/mol and 25 ± 7 kJ/mol (63% confidence intervals), respectively. Those same parameters in the 75–160°C regime were 5.2±0.8 kJ/mol and 95±14 kJ/mol, respectively, for the high-temperature regime. The values of ΔH suggested a short-circuit diffusion mechanism at low temperatures and a lattice or bulk-diffusion mechanism at high temperatures. The stress dependency of the steady-state strain rate did not indicate a strong power-law breakdown behavior or a threshold stress phenomenon. Cracks and grain-boundary sliding were not observed in any of the samples. As the creep temperature increased, a coarsened particle boundary and particle depletion zone formed in the region of fine Ag₃Sn particles that existed between the Sn-rich phase areas. The coarsened particle boundary, as well as accelerated coarsening of Ag₃Sn particles, were direct consequences of the creep deformation process.     

Intermetallic reactions in a Sn-20In-2.8Ag solder ball-grid-array package with Au/Ni/Cu pads

The intermetallic compounds formed during the reflow and aging of Sn-20In-2.8Ag ball-grid-array (BGA) packages are investigated. After reflow, a large number of cubic-shaped AuIn₂ intermetallics accompanied by Ag₂In precipitates appear in the solder matrix, while a Ni(Sn_0.72Ni_0.28)₂ intermetallic layer is formed at the solder/pad interface. With further aging at 100°C, many voids can be observed in the solder matrix and at the solder/pad interface. The continuous distribution of voids at the interface of specimens after prolonged aging at 100°C causes their bonding strength to decrease from 5.03 N (as reflowed) to about 3.50 N. Aging at 150°C induces many column-shaped (Cu_0.74Ni_0.26)₆(Sn_0.92In_0.08)₅ intermetallic compounds to grow rapidly and expand from the solder/pad interface into the solder matrix. The high microhardness of these intermetallic columns causes the bonding strength of the Sn-20In-2.8Ag BGA solder joints to increase to 5.68 N after aging at 150°C for 500 h.     

Interfacial reactions of Cu-containing lead-free solders with Au/NiP metallization

Cu-containing solder alloys have been used to identify their interfacial reactions with electroless NiP. As-reflowed, AuSn₄ intermetallic compounds (IMCs) are formed in the Sn-Cu and Sn-Ag-Cu solders, but in the cases of Sn-Ag-Cu-In, In-Sn-Au IMCs are formed and are uniformly distributed in the solder. Different types of IMCs such as high-Cu (>30 at.%), medium-Cu (30-15 at.%), and low-Cu (<15 at.%) containing IMCs are formed at the interface. High-Cu and medium-Cu containing ternary intermetallic compounds (TIMCs) are found in the Sn-Cu and Sn-Ag-Cu solder joints, respectively. Medium-Cu containing quaternary intermetallic compounds (QIMCs) are found in the Sn-Ag-Cu-In joints. Initially, TIMCs and QIMCs have higher growth rates, resulting in the entrapment of some Pb-rich phase in the high-Cu containing TIMCs and some In-Sn-Au phase in the QIMCs. High-Cu containing TIMCs have a lower growth rate and consume less of the NiP layer. The spalling of medium-Cu containing TIMCs in the Sn-Ag-Cu solder increases both the growth rate of TIMCs and the consumption rate of the NiP layer. Low-Cu containing QIMCs in the Sn-Ag-Cu-In solder are stable on P-rich Ni and reduce the dissolution rate of the NiP layer. Consumption of the NiP layer can be reduced by adding Cu or In, because of the changes of the interfacial IMCs phases, which are stable and adhere well to the P-rich Ni layer during reflow.     

QFP焊点塑性应变的数值模拟

元素铅既对人体存在神经毒性也对环境产生重金属污染,因此,无铅焊料的研究倍受封装业的重视。文章采用温度循环下有限元数值模拟方法,针对4种焊料5种配比包括SnPb（60／40,10／90）、SnPbAg（5／92．5／2．5）、SnAg（96．5／3．5）和SnAgCu（95．5／3．8／0．7）,定量评估QFP焊点的塑性应变。给出焊料各参数对于焊点塑性应变的影响程度,第一主元分析显式为△Ps≈-2．56△（Q／R）,相应的Y向塑性应变均值降低为优化前的11％。所得的结果可为QFP封装时的焊料选择提供新的设计参考。     

Recent Observations on Tin Pest Formation in Solder Alloys

The most recent observations of the response of bulk samples of several lead-free solder alloys, exposed to temperatures below the allotropic transition for tin for extended periods, are reported. Tin pest has been observed in Sn-0.5Cu, Sn-3.5Ag, Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu, and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu alloys at both −18°C and −40°C. The process is slow and inconsistent, usually requiring several years, but may eventually result in complete disintegration of the sample. No tin pest was detected in Sn-Zn-3Bi or in the traditional Sn-37Pb solder alloy after exposure for up to 4 and 10 years, respectively. It is suggested that nucleation is affected by local composition and that extremely small amounts of either intentional solute or impurity are influential. Growth of tin pest is accompanied by a large volume change, and it is likely that stress relaxation ahead of the expanding grey tin front is a controlling factor. A stronger matrix would be more resistant in this case, and at the temperatures of exposure Sn-37Pb is stronger than either Sn-3.5Ag or Sn-0.5Cu. The absence of tin pest, to date, on actual joints is attributed to their restricted free surface area and the greater strength associated with very small samples.     

Damage accumulation under repeated reverse stressing of Sn-Ag solder joints

To better understand the effect of repeated reverse stress in solder joints, a new testing method was developed. Tin-silver solder joints were fabricated, constrained between Cu blocks, and then subjected to repeated shear loading in a tensile tester. Constant strain amplitudes were applied to simulate service conditions. However, large loads were used to accelerate the damage accumulation. Microstructural features of the damage were very similar to those found with studies on thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) of small, single shear lap samples. Concentrated-shear banding or striations were observed to form along Sn dendrites. The load behavior of the solder with each cycle and during hold times at the extreme strain amplitude was consistent with damage accumulating with each successive cycle. Effects of strain amplitude, hold times at the stress extremes, number of cycles, and solder-joint thickness were found to play significant roles on the stress-strain behavior and surface damage.     

Flux development for lead-free solders containing zinc

New lead-free solders containing zinc are promising candidates to replace near-eutectic tin-lead solders because the solders melt at lower temperatures than Sn-Ag-base solders. They also possess good mechanical and fatigue properties and are less expensive. However, the contact angle on copper for Sn-Zn solders is high when fluxes used for Sn-Pb solders are utilized. A novel approach for flux development to improve wetting of copper surfaces by tin-zinc eutectic solder was developed: tin containing organic compounds, which decomposes at soldering temperatures and produces metallic tin on surfaces to be soldered was added to several specially formulated fluxes. This process improves wetting of copper surfaces by molten tin-zinc eutectic solder. Fluxes were developed that give a contact angle as low as 20°.     

半导体激光器封装中热应力和变形的分析

为了解决半导体激光器封装的热应力和变形问题,利用有限元软件ANSYS对SnPb、In、AuSn三种焊料焊接激光器管芯的情况分别进行了模拟,得到了相应的热应力大小和变形情况,分析了焊料和热沉对激光器热应力和变形的影响.对比了这几种不同封装方法的激光器发光区图像的弯曲程度,验证了模拟结果.由模拟和实验结果可见,采用In焊料是减小激光器热应力和变形的最佳选择.另外,适当增加热沉厚度,选择热匹配的材料,焊接时进行预热,可减小激光器的热应力和变形.通过模拟和实验分析,提出了减小热应力和变形的方法,为优化激光器的封装设计提供了参考依据.     

PCB设计对焊点强度及坑裂失效的影响

采用正交试验设计的方法,讨论了PCB基材的树脂禽餐、焊盘类型,以及焊盘大小对焊点强度和坑裂失效的影响。结果表明：在3个方面的因素中,PCB基材的树脂含量对焊点强度的影响程度最大。有阻焊膜限定的焊盘类型（SMD）要比无阻焊膜限定的焊盘类型（NSMD）的焊点强度要高,且不容易发生坑裂失效。