Determination of geomembrane – protective geotextile friction angle: An insight into the shear rate effect

This study investigates how the shear rate can affect the geomembrane – protective geotextile friction angle. Four types of geomembranes (GMB) were considered (EPDM, HPDE, PP, and PVC) and a single nonwoven needle-punched geotextile (GTX_nw) was used to make the interfaces with the geomembrane. Three shear devices were used: a large-scale inclined plane (IP), a shear box (SB), and a small-scale shear device (ssSD). The ssSD allows two shear modes to be compared: one mode involves incrementally increasing the shear stress, and the other involves imposing a constant tangential velocity at the interface. Only the PP GMB- GTX_nw was tested with the SB and the ssSD. Inclined plane standardised tests show that for the three interfaces that undergoes gradual sliding (EPDM, PP and PVC GMB- GTX_nw), it is shown that a step-by-step experimental procedure gives significantly lower interface friction angle than that given by the procedure from the current international standard, which is explained by the increase of interface shear stress with sliding speed. These observations are confirmed by shear box tests. One major practical result is that, following the nature of geosynthetics, the shear rate applied in large-scale shear box tests should be adapted to assess a safety value of a geosynthetic - geosynthetic interface friction angle.     

Barrier properties of a geosynthetic clay liner using polymerized sodium bentonite

The hydraulic and swelling properties of a polymerized bentonite (PB), and the self-healing capacity of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) using the PB as the core material (PB-GCL) were investigated experimentally. Five different test liquids included of deionized water, NaCl solutions (0.1 M and 0.6 M) and CaCl₂ solutions (0.1 M and 0.6 M) were used in this study. The PB exhibited a higher free swelling index (FSI) than that of the untreated bentonite (UB) for all test liquids. For permeability test, under a given void ratio (e), the value of k of the PB is much lower than that of the UB in NaCl and CaCl₂ solutions. The PB-GCL specimens demonstrated a higher self-healing capacity than that of the corresponding GCL specimens using the UB (UB-GCL). Specifically, when using a 0.6 M CaCl₂ solution for a 20-mm-diameter damage hole, the UB-GCL specimen provided a zero healing ratio (healed damage area/total damage area), but the PB-GCL specimen demonstrated an approximately 76% healing ratio. The results from this study indicate that the PB-GCL provided better barrier performance against cationic liquids with higher cation valence and concentrations compared to that of the UB-GCL.     

Combined effects of ammonium permeation and dry-wet cycles on the hydraulic conductivity and internal properties of geosynthetic clay liners

The hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) permeated with deionized water (S0) and NH₄⁺ solutions, with concentrations of 100 mg/L (S100) and 1000 mg/L (S1000), was examined under six dry-wet cycles. The internal properties of virgin, desiccated, and healed GCLs were analyzed and quantified using X-ray computed tomography images. The hydraulic conductivity of the GCLs permeated with S0 and S100 underwent a negligible change during the six dry-wet cycles, whereas that of S1000 increased by almost three orders of magnitude after two desiccations. Each desiccation, after permeating with S0 and S100, generated a completely different macro-crack pattern; however, generation of macro-cracks at the same locations from dry cycles 2 to 6 and an abundance of micro-cracks were typical for S1000. This implies the severe deterioration of bentonite due to multi-desiccations and chemical compatibility with S1000. Moreover, the swell index of bentonite exposed to S1000 was reduced by approximately half, after six dry-wet cycles. Despite the lower volume percentage of macro-cracks for S1000 compared to S0 and S100, the swelling capacity of this bentonite was insufficient to fully heal these cracks. Hence, the swelling properties of bentonite dominate crack volume with regard to determining the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs.     

A novel transient gravimetric monitoring technique implemented to GCL osmotic suction control

A modified osmotic suction control technique for monitoring apparent transient weight changes was successfully adapted to the wetting and drying paths of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs). Reasonable control was possible, enabling suction equilibrium to be achieved without disruption to the test. The results provide unique insight into the time-dependent changes in water retention properties and the semi-permeable membrane behaviour of the bentonite component in GCLs. The stages of suction equilibrium, related to the tri-modal pore structure of GCLs and the point of capillary break, could also be monitored. While the osmotic method has been traditionally used to control matric suction (up to 10 MPa) in soils, the overall results presented in this paper indicate that its application for total suction control in GCLs is largely due to the membrane behaviour of their bentonite component. Furthermore, because of capillary break between the GCL and the osmotic solution at the water entry (or residual) suction value of a GCL, an upper limit of 2.8 MPa suction is recommended for the application of the osmotic method to measure the water retention properties of GCLs.     

Enhancement of the GPR method of railway trackbed investigation by the installation of radar detectable geosynthetics

For several years ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys have been used to provide a rapid method of investigating the depth of the ballast/sub-grade interface.At the same time, rail industry geotechnical engineers are increasingly recognising the benefits of geosynthetic products specifically developed to suit the variety of needs and subgrade conditions encountered during repair and construction of the trackbed. This paper describes the recent development of a specialised geosynthetic, namely Terram PW5, which is uniquely designed to enhance remote monitoring by GPR. The benefits of providing a geosynthetic which is clearly detectable by radar are firstly, that it is easy to confirm after construction that the geosynthetic has been installed, and secondly that it facilitates the measurement of the depth of ballast above the geosynthetic at any time after construction. Terram Ltd and IMC Geophysics Limited have collaborated to develop a GPR detectable geosynthetic, and also a method of GPR detection, which improves the accuracy of depth of ballast measurement. A further application of radar detectable geosynthetics is monitoring trackbeds which are susceptible to subsidence, such as those running over karstic landscapes or old mine-workings, where gradual downward deflection of the reflecting stripe may be used to identify developing cavities.Other possible developments will be briefly discussed, regarding additional geotechnical monitoring functions which may be implemented by means of suitably designed geotextiles.     

Limit analysis in stability calculations of reinforced soil structures

Stability analyses of reinforced soil structures are traditionally based on limit equilibrium calculations. Results from such analyses are sometimes ambiguous because of different assumptions made in addition to the limit state. It is shown in this paper that these ambiguities can be removed if the kinematic approach of limit analysis is used, in which a rigorous bound to the required strength of reinforcement is sought. The required strength of reinforcement is the strength needed to maintain stability of the structure. Since limit analysis leads to a rigorous bound on the reinforcement strength, limit loads, or a safety factor, the geometry of the failure mechanisms considered can be optimized, so that the best bound is obtained (a solution closest to the exact solution). A dual formulation of kinematic limit analysis is possible in terms of limit force equilibrium, but the former is preferable since the kinematics of collapse mechanisms appeals to engineering intuition more than the distribution of forces does.     

Field observation of GCL shrinkage at a site in Melbourne Australia

The findings from an investigation of GCL overlap for a GCL constructed as part of a 55 m long (3H:1V) composite side liner for a landfill cell after 18 months exposure in Melbourne Australia are reported. It is concluded that the nominated minimum overlap of 300 mm was appropriate to achieve the design intent for the particular GCL examined. It is also concluded that for the exposure to which the GCL was subjected, the particular GCL experienced 50–80 mm of shrinkage during 18 months of exposure when the geomembrane was covered by a 5 mm thick off-white geotextile protection layer.     

Effect of subgrade soil stiffness on the design of geosynthetic tube

Water or soil filled geotextile or geosynthetic tubes have been used for coastal or river protection projects in recent years. How to design and analyze geosynthetic tube is still an important research topic. Although a number of solutions for geosynthetic tube have been proposed in the past, most of these solutions assume that the geosynthetic tube is resting on a rigid foundation. In this paper, a two-dimensional analysis of geosynthetic tube resting on deformable foundation soil is presented. The deformable foundation is assumed to be an elastic Winkler type represented by the modulus of subgrade reaction, K_f. The study shows that the smaller the modulus, the smaller the height of the geosynthetic tube above the ground surface and the higher the tensile force in the geotextile or geosynthetic given the other conditions the same. When the foundation soil has a modulus higher than 1000 kPa/m which is representative of soft clay, the foundation soil can be assumed to be rigid in the analysis. The results obtained from the method proposed in this paper are compared with those from the solutions of Leshchinsky et al. and Plaut and Suherman for verification. The differences between the solutions are also discussed.     

钠基膨润土防水毯在陡河青龙河防洪排涝综合整治工程中的应用

通过新型环保防渗材料——钠基膨润土防水毯（GCL-NP）在陡河青龙河防洪排涝综合整治工程应用案例,介绍了膨润土防水毯的工程设计和施工要点,实践证明,所用的钠基膨润土防水毯防渗效果优异,达到了设计要求,保证了工程质量。     

GRS结构与MSE结构的性能差异及评价方法

GRS(Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil)结构是指加筋间距不超过30 cm、填料压实度超过95%的加筋土体;MSE(Mechanically Stabilized Earth)结构则是加筋间距相对较大的加筋土体,即目前工程中常用的加筋土结构。相比于MSE结构,GRS结构的加筋间距更小、压实度更高,一般表现出与MSE结构不同的受力机制和结构性能。通过模型试验,对比研究GRS结构和MSE结构在竖向沉降、侧向位移、筋材应变等方面的性能差异,以加深对这2种加筋土结构的认识。试验结果表明:GRS结构的侧向位移明显小于MSE结构,GRS结构中筋材的应变较小且分布更为均匀;这说明GRS结构与MSE结构在结构性能上确实存在明显的区别。此外,还将部分试验实测数据与相关计算评价方法的理论值进行了对比分析,发现适用于MSE结构的现有评价方法通常并不适用于GRS结构;这种评价方法上的差异进一步说明了GRS结构和MSE结构之间存在较大的差别,因此需在工程设计中引起注意并区别对待。