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101.
The primary purpose of this work is to review the literature about what is and is not known about using ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA0 copolymer as the encapsulant (or pottant) material in photovoltaic (PV) modules. Secondary purposes include elucidating the complexity of the encapsulation problem, providing an overview about encapsulation of PV cells and modules, providing a historical overview of the relevant research and development on EVA, summarizing performance losses reported for PV systems deployed since ca. 1981, and summarizing the general problems of polymer stability in a solar environment. We also provide a critical review of aspects of reported work for cases that we believe are important.Failure modes resolved in the early work to establish reliability of deployed modules and the purposes and properties of pottants, are summarized. Typical performance losses in large field-deployed, large-scale systems ranging from 1% to 10% per year are given quantitatively, and qualitative reports of EVA discoloration are summarized with respect to ultraviolet (UV), world-wide location and site dependence.The general stability of polymers and their desirable bulk properties for solar utilization are given. The stabilization formulation for EVA, its effectiveness, and changes in it during degradation are discussed. The degradation mechanisms for the base resin, e.g., unstabilized Elvax 150TM, and stabilized EVA are indicated for literature dating to the early 1950s, and the role played by unsaturated chromophores is indicated. The limited number of studies relating discoloration and PV cell efficiency are summarized.Observed degradation of EVA or the unstabilized base resin in the laboratory and examples used to measure the degradation are summarized in sections entitled: (1) thermally-induced degradation; (2) photodegradation and photothermal degradation of EVA in different temperature regimes; (3) photobleaching and photodegradation of the UV absorber and cross-linking agent; (4) acetic acid and metal and metal-oxide catalyzed oxidative degradation; and (5) discolaration and PV cell efficiency losses.Processing effects/influences on EVA stability are discussed in sections entitled: (1) EVA raw materials and extruded, uncured films; (2) thermal encapsulation processes; (3) effects of lamination, curing, and curing peroxide on gel content and chromophores formed; and (4) incomplete shielding of curing-generated chromophores. A summary is given for the limited number of accelerated lifetime testing efforts and examples of erroneous service lifetime predictions for EVA are discussed. The known factors that effect the discoloration rate of several EVA formulations are discussed in which the reduction in rate by using UV-absorbing superstrates is a prime example. A summary is given of what is and is not known about EVA degradation mechanisms, degradation from exposures in field-deployed modeules and/or laboratory testing, and factors that contribute to EVA stability or degradation. Finally, conclusions about using Elvax 150 in EVA formulations are summarized, and future prospects for developing the next-generation pottant for encapsulating PV modules are discussed. 相似文献
102.
W. Claeys V. Quintard S. Dilhaire D. Lewis Y. Danto 《Quality and Reliability Engineering International》1994,10(4):289-295
We have recently developed an optical contactless method for testing the quality of solder joints during accelerated thermal cycling ageing processes.1 The method was based upon the measurement of the dynamic thermal behaviour of the joint to short bursts of Joule heating. It has proved to be efficient in revealing the formation of cracks at the lead-solder interface. We present a method to evaluate ageing at a much earlier stage in the cycling process. We have observed in earlier work,1 that before cracks appear, structural changes occur in the solder at the lead-solder interface. The thermal response of the solder joint is recorded over time to a Peltier heat perturbation produced by flowing a current pulse through the interface where structural changes occur. The key point in this method is to discriminate the Peltier effect from the Joule thermal response because both effects generate heat. The variation of the early Peltier response in the thermal cycling ageing tests is seen as a quantitative signature of the structural changes in the lead-solder interface. 相似文献
103.
We have performed selective area epitaxy (SAE) of CdTe layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy using a shadow mask technique.
This technique was chosen over other SAE techniques due to its simplicity and its compatibility with multiple SAE patterning
steps. Features as small as 50 microns × 50 microns were obtained with sharp, abrupt side walls and flat mesa tops. Separations
between mesas as small as 20 microns were also obtained. Shadowing effects due to the finite thickness of the mask were reduced
by placing the CdTe source in a near normal incidence position. Intimate contact between the mask and the substrate was essential
in order to achieve good pattern definition. 相似文献
104.
A new principle and arrangement for directly determining the angle of incidence of an optical beam on an object are proposed and demonstrated. The novelty of the approach lies in the realization of a ‘smart object’, which extracts a portion of the incident beam's power into an optical waveguide attached to the object's surface or embedded in its body for converting the angle of incidence into the position of a guided beam with finite lateral extent. This ‘integrated optical light pointer’ beam is accomplished by means of creating additional degrees of freedom on the target in two different ways. While a first type is based on introducing spatial variations of the waveguide thickness, a second type makes use of a chirp of the grating periodicity. The feasibility for practical applications has been experimentally demonstrated by a direct comparison with a commercial high-resolution encoder, resulting in an r.m.s. error of <30′'. Measurements have been performed for chips fabricated based on replicated polycarbonate substrates and with no external optics, showing the great potential of this approach for realizing low-cost yet high-performance miniature goniometers. 相似文献
105.
P. Kurpas A. Oster M. Weyers A. Rumberg K. Knorr W. Richter 《Journal of Electronic Materials》1997,26(10):1159-1163
Reflectance anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS) has been used to study As-by-P exchange during metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy.
The study focuses on the processes occurring during switching from GaAs to GaInP, especially the effect of purging PH3 over a GaAs surface. GaAsP/GaAs superlattices of different periodicity were grown and the P-content was determined by high-resolution
x-ray diffraction and correlated to the RAS spectra. From the temperature dependence of the P-content, an activation energy
of 0.56 eV was estimated for the incorporation mechanism. In addition to the insights into the processes at mixed group-V
heterointerfaces, our study demonstrates the reproducibility of RAS transients that thus can be used for process monitoring. 相似文献
106.
Contemporary approaches to the certification of measurement provision software are considered in domestic and overseas publications.
Normative documentation is analyzed and a scheme is proposed for certification that takes account of the features of programs
used for metrological purposes.
__________
Translated from Izmeritel’naya Tekhnika, No. 5, pp. 65–68, May, 2007. 相似文献
107.
振动采油工艺在稠油区的实验研究与应用 总被引:5,自引:2,他引:3
在天然地震的影响下,油井产量发生波动,使人们受到启示,从而引进了振动采油工艺技术。本文对振动增产的机理进行了探讨,指出振动增油机理在于加快地层中流体的流速;改变储集层内油、气、水的重新分布;改变岩石表面润湿性,有利于清除油层堵塞,提高渗透率。通过分析两个试验区的振动采油效果,总结出在不同扰动力、不同激振频率、不同振动周期下的增产效果和规律,对振动采油的实施具有一定的指导意义。 相似文献
108.
Seven hundred three members of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology indicated agreement or disagreement with 49 propositions regarding cognitive ability tests in organizations. There was consensus that cognitive ability tests are valid and fair, that they provide good but incomplete measures, that different abilities are necessary for different jobs, and that diversity is valuable. Items dealing with the unique status of cognitive ability were most likely to generate polarized opinions. A 2-factor model, classifying items as those reflecting societal concerns over the consequences of ability testing and those reflecting an emphasis on the unique status of "g," fit the data well, and these factors proved especially important for predicting responses to the more controversial items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) 相似文献
109.
110.
M. Sanganeria D. T. Grider M. C. öztürk J. J. Wortman 《Journal of Electronic Materials》1992,21(1):61-64
In-situ doped polycrystalline SixGe1-x
(x = 0.7) alloys were deposited by rapid thermal chemical vapor deposition (RTCVD) using the reactive gases SiH2Cl2, GeH4 and B2H6 in a H2 carrier gas. The depositions were performed at a total pressure of 4.0 Torr and at temperatures 600° C, 650° C and 700° C
and different B2H6 flow rates. The conditions were chosen to achieve high doping levels in the deposited films. Our results indicate negligible
effect of B2H6 flow on the deposition rate. The depositions follow an Arrhenius type behavior with an activation energy of 25 kcal/mole.
Boron incorporation in the films was found to follow a simple kinetic model with higher boron levels at lower deposition rates
and higher B2H6 flow rates. As-deposited resistivities as low as 2 mΩ-cm were obtained. Rapid thermal annealing (RTA) in the temperature
range 800-1000° C was found to reduce the resistivity only marginally due to the high levels of boron activation achieved
during the deposition process. The results indicate that polycrystalline SixGe1-x films can be deposited by RTCVD with resistivities comparable to those reported for in-situ doped polysilicon. 相似文献