Mapping the energy consumption of household refrigerators by varying the refrigerant charge and the expansion restriction

In this work the thermodynamic behavior of a household refrigerator was experimentally studied by simultaneously varying the refrigerant charge and the expansion restriction. A special charging device was designed and constructed for this purpose comprised of a cylinder, a load cell and two solenoid valves. In addition, the original capillary tube was replaced with a larger-diameter capillary tube and installed in series with a metering valve. The expansion restriction was varied by adjusting the capillary tube–metering valve pair to settings higher and lower than that of the original system. A total of 95 energy consumption measurements were recorded with different combinations of refrigerant charge and expansion restriction. A minimum energy consumption region comprised of several combinations of refrigerant charge and expansion restriction was clearly identified. It was also observed that an improper combination of expansion restriction and refrigerant charge may increase the energy consumption by up to 30%.     

A novel proportional-derivative (PD) law based fuzzy logic principles assisted controller for simultaneously controlling indoor temperature and humidity using a direct expansion (DX) air conditioning (A/C) system

A novel Proportional-Derivative (PD)law based Fuzzy Logic Controller (PFC) for a variable speed (VS) direct expansion (DX) air conditioning (A/C) system has been developed. There were two coupled control loops in this controller, i.e., varying supply fan speed to control indoor dry-bulb temperature (T_db), and compressor speed indoor wet-bulb temperature (T_wb). To weaken the coupling effect between the two loops, fuzzy logic principles were deployed. Furthermore, a PD law was used instead of a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) law, in the PFC, which helped simplify not only calculation but also the structure of the PFC. The controller developed was validated by carrying out the controllability tests with the experimental conditions covering the normal operational range of a VS DX A/C system. The experimental results of the controllability tests suggested that the novel PFC developed is capable of realizing the simultaneous control of indoor temperature and humidity satisfactorily, in terms of control accuracy and sensitivity.     

Numerical simulation of non-adiabatic capillary tubes. Special emphasis on the near-saturation zone

The aim of this article is to present a distributed numerical model that simulates the thermal and fluid-dynamic phenomena inside non-adiabatic capillary tubes. The resolution approach is based on a two-phase flow model where the fluid domain is discretized in a one-dimensional way, and the governing equations (continuity, momentum, and energy) are solved by means of a step-by-step algorithm. The model explained herein consists of an improved and extended version of previous works (Escanes et al., 1995; García-Valladares et al., 2002a,b; Ablanque et al., 2010) including two additional features. On the one hand, it allows the simulation of the two typical geometric arrangements found in capillary-tube/suction-line heat exchangers (i.e. concentric and lateral). On the other hand, it has an enhanced capability to address the convergence difficulties found in distributed models at the near-saturation zone. This document presents the major numerical adaptations done to the model, a comprehensive validation of the two geometric configurations, the model performance when tackling the aforementioned numerical difficulties and finally, some numerical studies.     

Ejector expansion refrigeration system: Ejector design and performance evaluation

Use of a two-phase flow ejector as an expansion device in vapor compression refrigeration systems is one of the efficient ways to enhance its performance. The present work aims to design a constant-area two phase flow ejector and to evaluate performance characteristics of the ejector expansion refrigeration system working with R134a. In order to achieve these objectives, a simulation program is developed and effects of operating conditions and ejector internal efficiencies on the system performance are investigated using EES software. Comparison between present results and published experimental data revealed that the developed model can predict the system COP with a maximum error of 2.3%. The system COP increased by 87.5% as evaporation temperature changed from −10 °C to 10 °C. Finally, correlations to size ejector main diameters as a function of operating conditions, system cooling capacity and ejector internal efficiencies are reported.     

Thermal characteristics of a Hartmann-Sprenger tube

This paper describes the thermal characteristics of a water-cooled Hartmann-Sprenger (HS) tube as an expansion device for refrigeration and cryogenic applications. In this arrangement, a jet issuing from a convergent nozzle and expanded to a pressure below the critical value is directed towards the HS tube closed at the opposite end and maintained at resonant conditions. The interaction of the steady jet entering this tube, the generation and the propagation of the acoustic waves within the tube and the resulting non-linear flow oscillations result in strong thermal effects and heating of the entrapped gases. Effective heat removal at the surface of the HS tube results in a pseudo-positive Joule-Thomson coefficient. The emerging gas from such a nozzle-HS tube arrangement under resonant conditions will be much cooler when compared to the throttling process. The intense heating experienced in this arrangement using primary and secondary smaller tubes may find other industrial applications such as the flameless ignition of rocket engines. This experimental work suggests further investigations coupled with analytical modelling and optimization resulting in a device having either maximum cooling of the emerging stream or a high temperature heat source.     

Optimized transcritical CO2 heat pumps: Performance comparison of capillary tubes against expansion valves

A capillary tube based CO₂ heat pump is unique because of the transcritical nature of the system. The transcritical cycle has two independent parameters, pressure and temperature, unlike the subcritical cycle. In the present study, a steady state simulation model has been developed to evaluate the performance of a capillary tube based transcritical CO₂ heat pump system for simultaneous heating and cooling at 73 °C and 4 °C, respectively against optimized expansion valve systems. Capillary tubes of various configurations having diameters of 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 mm along with internal surface roughness of 0.001–0.003 mm have been tested to obtain the optimum design and operating conditions. Subcritical and supercritical thermodynamic and transport properties of CO₂ are calculated employing a precision in-house property code.

It is observed that the capillary tube system is quite flexible in response to changes in ambient temperature, almost behaving to offer an optimal pressure control. System performance is marginally better with a capillary tube at higher gas cooler exit temperature. Capillary tube length turns out to be the critical parameter that influences system optimum conditions. A novel nomogram has been developed that can be employed as a guideline to select the optimum capillary tube.     

Experimental investigation of the performance of R22, R407C and R410A in several capillary tubes for air-conditioners

The objective of this study is to present test results and to develop a dimensionless correlation on the basis of the experimental data of adiabatic capillary tubes for R22 and its alternatives, R407C (R32/125/134a, 23/25/52 wt.%) and R410A (R32/125, 50/50 wt.%). Several capillary tubes with different length and inner diameter were selected as test sections. Mass flow rate through the capillary tube was measured for several condensing temperatures and various degrees of subcooling at the inlet of each capillary tube. Experimental conditions for the condensing temperatures were selected as 40, 45 and 50°C, and the degrees of subcooling were adjusted to 1.5, 5 and 10°C. Mass flow rates of R407C and R410A were compared with those of R22 for the same test conditions. The results for straight capillary tubes were also compared with those of coiled capillary tubes. A new correlation based on Buckingham π theorem to predict the mass flow rate through the capillary tubes was presented based on extensive experimental data for R22, R407C and R410A. Dimensionless parameters were chosen considering the effects of tube geometry, capillary tube inlet conditions, and refrigerant properties. Dimensionless correlation predicted experimental data within relative deviations ranging from −12% to +12% for every test condition for R22, R407C and R410A. The predictions by the developed correlation were in good agreement with the results in the open literature.     

Multivariable control-oriented modeling of a direct expansion (DX) air conditioning (A/C) system

A dynamic mathematical model for a DX A/C system has been developed. The dynamic model, written in state-space representation which was suitable for designing multivariable control, was linearized at steady state operating points. The linearized model has been validated by comparing the model simulation results with the experimental data obtained from an experimental DX A/C system. The simulated results agreed well with the experimental data, suggesting that the model developed was able to capture the transient characteristics of the DX A/C system modeled. It is expected that the model developed can be useful in designing a multi-input multi-output (MIMO) controller to simultaneously control indoor air temperature and humidity in a space served by a DX A/C system.     

A generalized correlation for the characteristics of adiabatic capillary tubes

The capillary tube is often served as an expansion device in small refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. In this paper, a generalized correlation for predicting the refrigerant mass flow rate through the adiabatic capillary tube is developed with approximate analytic solutions based on the extensive data for R12, R22, R134a, R290, R600a, R410A, R407C, and R404A, in which a homogeneous equilibrium model for two-phase flow is employed, and there is a subcooled liquid or saturated two-phase mixture at the inlet of the capillary tubes. The collected database about capillary tubes covers the inner diameter from 0.5 mm to 2 mm, the tube length from 0.5 m to 5 m, the condensing temperature from 20 °C to 60 °C, the subcooling from 0 °C to 20 °C, and the quality from 0 to 0.3 at the inlet. Assessments for the correlation are made with some experimental data for R12, R22, R134a, R290, R407C, R410A, and R404A obtained from the open literature and some existing correlations based on the experimental database also. The present correlation yields an average deviation of −0.83% and a standard deviation of 9.02% from the database.     

Analysis of moisture condensation during air expansion in turbines

Water is always present in the atmospheric air in the form of vapour. As air of low temperature expands through the turbine condensation may occur. Condensation gives rise to several problems in materialization of the air cycle as it results in temperature rise thus to different conditions than the expected at the turbine exit. Also in most air cycle applications, liquid water must be removed from the air stream before it gets to the cooled space. In the case that turbine exit temperature is very low; there is the possibility of ice particles formation. A method allowing the evaluation of air properties when condensation occurs is required in order to examine its effect on the cycle and optimize the operating envelope. The present paper describes a thermodynamic equilibrium method for predicting the occurrence of condensation and calculating the mixture properties once condensation has occurred. The method has been validated against the experimental results from a turbocharger turbine. The experimental results show that condensation can cause significant alteration to the turbine exit conditions. It is demonstrated that condensation can be predicted and the mixture properties after condensation can also be accurately evaluated.