The need and prospects for improved fusion reactors

Conceptual fusion reactor studies over the past 10–15 yr have projected systems that may be too large, complex, and costly to be of commercial interest. One main direction for improved fusion reactors points toward smaller, higher-power-density approaches. First-order economic issues (i.e., unit direct cost and cost of electricity) are used to support the need for more compact fusion reactors. The results of a number of recent conceptual designs of reversed-field pinch, spheromak, and tokamak fusion reactors are summarized as examples of more compact approaches. While a focus has been placed on increasing the fusion-power-core mass power density beyond the minimum economic threshold of 100–200 kWe/tonne, other means by which the overall attractiveness of fusion as a long-term energy source are also addressed.Nomenclature a Plasma minor radius at outboard equatorial plane (m) - A Plasma aspect ratioR _T /a - AC Annual charges ($/yr) - b Plasma minor radius in vertical direction (m) - B Magentic field at plasma or blanket (T) - B _c Magnetic field at the coil (T) - B Toroidal magnetic field (T) - B Poloidal magnetic field (T) - BOP Balance of plant - C Coil - COE Cost of electricity (mills/kWeh) - CRFPR Compact RFP reactor - CT Compact torus (FRC or spheromak) - c _FPC Unit cost of fusion power core ($/kg) - DC Direct cost ($) - DZP Dense Z-pinch - E Escalation rate (1/yr) - EDC Escalation during construction ($) - ET Elongated tokamak - F Annual fuel charges ($/yr) - FC Component of UDC not strongly dependent or FPC size ($/kWe) - FW First wall - FPC Fusion power core - f _Aux Fraction of gross electric power recirculated to BOP - f ₁ (IC+IDC+EDC)/DC - f ₂ (O&M + SCR + F)/AC - IC Indirect cost ($) - IDC Interest during construction ($) - I _w Neutron first-wall loading (MW/m²) - i Toroidal plasma current (MA) - j Plasma current density, I/a² - k _B Boltzmann constant, 1.602(10)^–16 (J/keV) - LWR Light-water (fission) reactor - MPD Mass power density 1000P_E/M_FPC (kWe/tonne) - M _N Blanket energy multiplication of 14.1-MeV neutron energy - M _FPC Mass of fusion power core (tonne) - n Plasma density (m^–3) or toroidal MHD mode number - O&M Annual operating and maintenance cost ($/yr) - p _f Plant availability factor - PFD Poloidal field dominated (CTs, RFP, DZP) - P Construction time (yr) - P_TH Thermal power (MWt) - P _E Net electric power (1-)P _ET (MWe) - P_ET Total gross electric power (MWe) - p_f Fusion power (MW) - q Tokamak safety factor (B /B _gq )(a/R _T ) - q _e EngineeringQ value, 1/e - R _T Major toroidal radius (m) - RFP Reversed-field pinch - RPE Reactor plant equipment (Account 22) - S Shield - SCR Annual spare component cost ($/yr) - SSR Second stability region for the tokamak - S/T/H Stellarator/torsatron/heliotron - ST Spherical tokamak or spherical torus - T Plasma temperature (keV) - TDC Total direct cost ($) - TOC Total overnight cost ($) - UDC Unit direct cost,TDC/10 ³ P _E ($/kWe) - V _p Plasma volume (m³) - W _p Plasma energy (GJ) - W _B Magnetic field energy (GJ) - Magnetic utilization efficiency, 2nk_BT/(B ²/2₀) - ₀ Permeability of free space, 4(10)^–7 H/m - XE Plasma confinement efficiency, a²/4_E - _e Plasma energy confinement time - _p Overall plant efficiency, _TH(1-) - _TH Thermal conversion efficiency - _FPC AverageFPC mass density (tonne/m³) - Plasma vertical elongation factor,b/a - Thickness of allFPC engineering structure surround plasma (m) - Total recirculating power fraction, (P _ET-P _E)/P _ET, or inverse aspect ratioa/R _T This work was performed under the auspices of USDOE, Office of Fusion Energy.     

Comparison of mainline and alternate approaches to fusion energy

The tokamak and tandem mirror concepts are compared with alternate confinement concepts using the criteria established in DOE/ET-0047, An Evaluation of Alternate Magnetic Fusion Concepts 1977. The concepts are evaluated and rated in each of three broad categories: confidence in physics and technology, and reactor desirability. The STARFIRE and MARS reactors are used as a basis for comparing the mainline tokamak and tandem mirror concepts with the alternate concepts evaluated in DOE/ET-0047. Two recent alternate concepts, theohmically heated toroidal experiment (OHTE) and thecompact reversed field pinch reactor (CRFPR), are also evaluated. Results indicate that the physics of the mainline tokamaks and tandem mirrors is better understood than that of most alternate concepts. Both mainline concepts rank near the middle for technology requirements, and both rank near or at the bottom when compared with the reactor desirability of alternate concepts.     

Overview of Tiber-II—Evolution toward an Engineering Test Reactor

TIBER II is designed to be a minimum size and cost candidate for an international Engineering Test Reactor. High-current density Nb₃Sn superconducting magnets with radiation-tolerant polymide insulation is combined with a minimum thickness tungsten inbored shield and a common, external vacuum boundary to minimize the inner radial build of the tokamak core. This results in a major radius of 3 m, compared to 5 m for previous ETR designs such as INTOR, with correspondingly lower costs expected. Cyclic stress fatigue limits the number of pulses so that steady-state current drive, based on a combination of neutral beams, lower hybrid and ECH, is designed to achieve reactor-relevant nuclear testing conditions (Fluence 3MW yr/m², rwall > 1 MW/m² in steady state).This report is abstracted from a more complete information document UCID-20863 with numerous authors. See Ref. l for complete credits.     

焊接设备中计算机控制系统的抗干扰

本文分析提出焊接设备中影响计算机控制系统的几种主要干扰。结合实际工作,提出了解决的措施和方法。     

水下设备安装过程及其影响因素分析

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我国小型轧机面临的挑战和机遇

在介绍小型材的需求与生产现状的基础上，分析了目前新建和改建小型轧机中的一些技术问题，并推荐了小型轧机生产应采用的新工艺、新技术、新设备。     

综合管廊电气工程的相关问题研究

城市综合管廊是现代城市建设的重要综合系统,其电气工程设计工作需要关注供电电源、接地系统、照明设计、电气设备防潮、电缆敷设等关键环节。     

基于电网电力设备“两态”管理体制的安全生产责任体系建设的研究与应用

介绍了安全生产责任体系建设的基本内容,分析了电网电力设备安全生产现状及存在问题,并结合相关实践经验,分别从强化电网电力设备状态检修等多个角度与方面,探讨了电网电力设备安全生产责任体系建设策略。     

重钢高线轧机生产工艺设计

在原有国产高线轧机基础上,经改进,如采用新型闭口式轧机,超高速机架,顶交无扭精轧机组等。为重钢高线车间进行了设计,终轧保证速度达到８０ｍ／ｓ,使我国高线轧机国产化达到了新阶段。     

地下环境中电子设备的腐蚀与防护

程环境中电子设备所承受的湿度、温度、腐蚀性气体、空气沉积物、微生物等环境应力因素及其腐蚀效应，概述总结了电子设备腐蚀机制及主要类型，并提出电子设备设计与使用中抑制腐蚀的措施.