Energy use efficiency and economical analysis of almond production: a case study in Chaharmahal-Va-Bakhtiari province,Iran

The aim of this study was to analyse input–output energy and economical assessment of almond production in three age groups of orchards (group I 6–10, group II 11–15 and group III 16–20 years old) in Chahrmahal-Va-Bakhtiari province, Iran. Data for almond production were collected by administering questionnaire in face-to-face interviews from the orchards selected based on random sampling method during a 3-year period. The results showed that 57,027.13, 60,341.14 and 61,640.43 MJ ha^?1 energy was consumed by group I, group II and group III, respectively. The most energy input was consumed by electricity, followed by chemical fertilizer. Energy indices were calculated, and the results revealed that energy efficiency was 0.62, 1.12 and 0.81 in the triple groups of orchards, respectively. Economical assessment showed that total production cost of almond in group I, II and III was $4547.54, $5799.26 and $5687.05 ha^?1, respectively. In all orchard groups, the shares of variable and fixed production costs found to be same nearly. Net return for almond production was $14,516.22, $30,735.19 and $21,395.57ha^?1, respectively. According to the research results, it was concluded that although almond production in the study region was not an efficient process in terms of energy consumption, it was a profitable agricultural operation.     

Infrared thin layer drying of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigmas: Mass transfer parameters and quality assessment

Saffron is the most precious and expensive agricultural product. A dehydration treatment is necessary to convert Crocus sativus L. stigmas into saffron spice. To the best of our knowledge, no information on mass transfer parameters of saffron stigmas is available in the literature. This study aimed at investigating the moisture transfer parameters and quality attributes of saffron stigmas under infrared treatment at different temperatures(60,70, …, 110 °C). It was observed that the dehydration process of the samples occurred in a short accelerating rate period at the start followed by a falling rate period. The effective moisture diffusivity and convective mass transfer coefficient were determined by using the Dincer and Dost model. The diffusivity values varied from1.1103 × 10~(-10)m~2·s~(-1)to 4.1397 × 10~(-10)m~2·s~(-1) and mass transfer coefficient varied in the range of 2.6433 × 10~(-7)–8.7203 × 10~(-7)m·s~(-1). The activation energy was obtained to be 27.86 k J·mol~(-1). The quality assessment results showed that the total crocin content increased, when the temperature increased up to90 °C but, in higher temperatures, the amount of crocin decreased slightly. The total safranal content of the samples decreased slightly when drying temperature increased from 60 °C to 70 °C and then continuously increased up to 110 °C. Also, the amount of picrocrocin increased from 83.1 to 93.3 as the drying temperature increased from 60 °C to 100 °C.     

Characterization of polystyrene latexes

Polystyrene latexes were prepared by emulsion polymerization. Styrene was used as monomer, potassium persulfate was the reaction initiator and sodium hydrogen carbonate was used as buffer. Surfactant may or may not be used. Three types of surfactant, ie sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (anionic), Triton X‐100 and Vulcastab LW (nonionic), and hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (cationic), were used. The prepared latexes were characterized according to concentration, density, pH, ionic strength, particle size, particle size distribution and surface charge. For prepared latexes with anionic surfactant, the effects of temperature, initiator concentration, surfactant concentration and amount of monomer on the latex size were investigated. Scanning electron microscopy was used as a tool for latex characterization. The results show that by increasing temperature, initiator and emulsifier concentration, the latex diameter decreases. However, size increases by increasing the amount of monomer. A potentiometric titration technique was employed for determination of surface charge. It was found that for all latexes, surface charge densities are in the same range. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry