Evaluation of direct light processing for the fabrication of bioactive ceramic scaffolds: Effect of pore/strut size on manufacturability and mechanical performance

Bioactive ceramic scaffolds for bone regeneration consisting of a three-dimensional mesh of interpenetrating struts with square section were fabricated via Digital Light Processing (DLP). The ability of the technique to manufacture 3D porous structures from β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) powders with different dimensions of struts and pores was evaluated, identifying the possibilities and limitations of the manufacturing process. Small pore sizes were found to seriously complicate the elimination of excess slurry from the scaffold’s innermost pores. The effect of the strut/pore size on the mechanical performance of the scaffolds under compressive stresses was also evaluated, but no significant influence was found. Under compressive stresses, the structures resulted weaker when tested perpendicularly to the printing plane due to interlayer shear failure. Interlayer superficial grooves are proposed as potential failure-controlling defects, which could also explain the lack of a Weibull size effect on the mechanical strength of the fabricated DLP scaffolds.     

What Can We Learn from FGF-2 Isoform-Specific Mouse Mutants? Differential Insights into FGF-2 Physiology In Vivo

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), ubiquitously expressed in humans and mice, is functionally involved in cell growth, migration and maturation in vitro and in vivo. Based on the same mRNA, an 18-kilo Dalton (kDa) FGF-2 isoform named FGF-2 low molecular weight (FGF-2LMW) isoform is translated in humans and rodents. Additionally, two larger isoforms weighing 21 and 22 kDa also exist, summarized as the FGF-2 high molecular weight (FGF-2HMW) isoform. Meanwhile, the human FGF-2HMW comprises a 22, 23, 24 and 34 kDa protein. Independent studies verified a specific intracellular localization, mode of action and tissue-specific spatiotemporal expression of the FGF-2 isoforms, increasing the complexity of their physiological and pathophysiological roles. In order to analyze their spectrum of effects, FGF-2LMW knock out (ko) and FGF-2HMWko mice have been generated, as well as mice specifically overexpressing either FGF-2LMW or FGF-2HMW. So far, the development and functionality of the cardiovascular system, bone formation and regeneration as well as their impact on the central nervous system including disease models of neurodegeneration, have been examined. This review provides a summary of the studies characterizing the in vivo effects modulated by the FGF-2 isoforms and, thus, offers a comprehensive overview of its actions in the aforementioned organ systems.     

How Cells Communicate with Each Other in the Tumor Microenvironment: Suggestions to Design Novel Therapeutic Strategies in Cancer Disease

Connexin- and pannexin (Panx)-formed hemichannels (HCs) and gap junctions (GJs) operate an interaction with the extracellular matrix and GJ intercellular communication (GJIC), and on account of this they are involved in cancer onset and progression towards invasiveness and metastatization. When we deal with cancer, it is not correct to omit the immune system, as well as neglecting its role in resisting or succumbing to formation and progression of incipient neoplasia until the formation of micrometastasis, nevertheless what really occurs in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which are the main players and which are the tumor or body allies, is still unclear. The goal of this article is to discuss how the pivotal players act, which can enhance or contrast cancer progression during two important process: “Activating Invasion and Metastasis” and the “Avoiding Immune Destruction”, with a particular emphasis on the interplay among GJIC, Panx-HCs, and the purinergic system in the TME without disregarding the inflammasome and cytokines thereof derived. In particular, the complex and contrasting roles of Panx1/P2X7R signalosome in tumor facilitation and/or inhibition is discussed in regard to the early/late phases of the carcinogenesis. Finally, considering this complex interplay in the TME between cancer cells, stromal cells, immune cells, and focusing on their means of communication, we should be capable of revealing harmful messages that help the cancer growth and transform them in body allies, thus designing novel therapeutic strategies to fight cancer in a personalized manner.     

Oxidative Stress and Low-Grade Inflammation in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Controversies and New Insights

The pathophysiology of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is quite complex and different mechanisms could contribute to hyperandrogenism and anovulation, which are the main features of the syndrome. Obesity and insulin-resistance are claimed as the principal factors contributing to the clinical presentation; in normal weight PCOS either, increased visceral adipose tissue has been described. However, their role is still debated, as debated are the biochemical markers linked to obesity per se. Oxidative stress (OS) and low-grade inflammation (LGI) have recently been a matter of researcher attention; they can influence each other in a reciprocal vicious cycle. In this review, we summarize the main mechanism of radical generation and the link with LGI. Furthermore, we discuss papers in favor or against the role of obesity as the first pathogenetic factor, and show how OS itself, on the contrary, can induce obesity and insulin resistance; in particular, the role of GH-IGF-1 axis is highlighted. Finally, the possible consequences on vitamin D synthesis and activation on the immune system are briefly discussed. This review intends to underline the key role of oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation in the physiopathology of PCOS, they can cause or worsen obesity, insulin-resistance, vitamin D deficiency, and immune dyscrasia, suggesting an inverse interaction to what is usually considered.     

Dihydrotanshinone,a Natural Diterpenoid,Preserves Blood-Retinal Barrier Integrity via P2X7 Receptor

Activation of P2X7 signaling, due to high glucose levels, leads to blood retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown, which is a hallmark of diabetic retinopathy (DR). Furthermore, several studies report that high glucose (HG) conditions and the related activation of the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) lead to the over-expression of pro-inflammatory markers. In order to identify novel P2X7R antagonists, we carried out virtual screening on a focused compound dataset, including indole derivatives and natural compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester derivatives, flavonoids, and diterpenoids. Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born Surface Area (MM/GBSA) rescoring and structural fingerprint clustering of docking poses from virtual screening highlighted that the diterpenoid dihydrotanshinone (DHTS) clustered with the well-known P2X7R antagonist JNJ47965567. A human-based in vitro BRB model made of retinal pericytes, astrocytes, and endothelial cells was used to assess the potential protective effect of DHTS against HG and 2′(3′)-O-(4-Benzoylbenzoyl)adenosine-5′-triphosphate (BzATP), a P2X7R agonist, insult. We found that HG/BzATP exposure generated BRB breakdown by enhancing barrier permeability (trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER)) and reducing the levels of ZO-1 and VE-cadherin junction proteins as well as of the Cx-43 mRNA expression levels. Furthermore, HG levels and P2X7R agonist treatment led to increased expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (TLR-4, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-8) and other molecular markers (P2X7R, VEGF-A, and ICAM-1), along with enhanced production of reactive oxygen species. Treatment with DHTS preserved the BRB integrity from HG/BzATP damage. The protective effects of DHTS were also compared to the validated P2X7R antagonist, JNJ47965567. In conclusion, we provided new findings pointing out the therapeutic potential of DHTS, which is an inhibitor of P2X7R, in terms of preventing and/or counteracting the BRB dysfunctions elicited by HG conditions.     

Supramolecular Assembly of Aminoethylene‐Lipopeptide PMO Conjugates into RNA Splice‐Switching Nanomicelles

Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) are oligonucleotide analogs that can be used for therapeutic modulation of pre‐mRNA splicing. Similar to other classes of nucleic acid‐based therapeutics, PMOs require delivery systems for efficient transport to the intracellular target sites. Here, artificial peptides based on the oligo(ethylenamino) acid succinyl‐tetraethylenpentamine (Stp), hydrophobic modifications, and an azide group are presented, which are used for strain‐promoted azide‐alkyne cycloaddition conjugation with splice‐switching PMOs. By systematically varying the lead structure and formulation, it is determined that the type of contained fatty acid and supramolecular assembly have a critical impact on the delivery efficacy. A compound containing linolenic acid with three cis double bonds exhibits the highest splice‐switching activity and significantly increases functional protein expression in pLuc/705 reporter cells in vitro and after local administration in vivo. Structural and mechanistic studies reveal that the lipopeptide PMO conjugates form nanoparticles, which accelerate cellular uptake and that the content of unsaturated fatty acids enhances endosomal escape. In an in vitro Duchenne muscular dystrophy exon skipping model using H2K‐mdx52 dystrophic skeletal myotubes, the highly potent PMO conjugates mediate significant splice‐switching at very low nanomolar concentrations. The presented aminoethylene‐lipopeptides are thus a promising platform for the generation of PMO‐therapeutics with a favorable activity/toxicity profile.