Longitudinal findings from the normative aging study: I. Does mental health change with age?

Longitudinal changes in self-reported symptoms were investigated using the Cornell Medical Index (CMI) in a sample of 2,041 men. The average man completed 5 CMIs (range?=?2–8) over 17 (range?=?2–25) years. Using a two-stage growth model, we first regressed symptoms against time on study for each man. The average slope of physical symptoms showed a moderate increase over time, but the average slope of psychological symptoms showed little change. Next individual differences in change were examined using age at entry as an explanatory variable. Age accounted for 50% of the variance in physical symptoms at entry and 7% of the variance in slopes, but explained neither baseline level nor change in psychological symptoms. Rather, a U-shaped curve described the relation between age and psychological symptom change. These results, in concert with a developmental perspective, may help reconcile conflicting findings on aging and mental health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in social support among retirees and workers: Findings from the Normative Aging Study.

Cross-sectional differences between retirees and workers in the importance of coworkers as a source of support, as well as in general quantitative support (social networks and frequency of interaction) and qualitative support (confidants and the perceived reliability of support) were examined. The sample consisted of 1,513 older men (mean age?=?61), participants in the Normative Aging Study. Half (56%) were working, and the rest were retired. Slightly fewer retirees than workers reported coworker friends, especially among those who were long-term retirees or who did not work at all in retirement. Whereas similar findings were seen with quantitative support, workers and retirees reported nearly identical levels of qualitative support. However, retirees almost never discussed personal problems with former coworkers. The relevance of these findings for the convoy construct is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical symptom trajectories following trauma exposure: longitudinal findings from the normative aging study

This study modeled physical symptom trajectories from ages 30 to 75 in 1079 older male military veterans who were assessed every 3 to 5 years since the 1960s. Combat exposure and noncombat trauma were used to define four groups: no trauma (N = 249), noncombat trauma only (N = 333), combat only (N = 152), and both combat and noncombat trauma (N = 345). Number of symptoms on the Cornell Medical Index physical symptom scale increased 29% per decade. Men who had experienced either combat or noncombat trauma did not differ from nonexposed men, but those who had experienced both combat and noncombat trauma had 16% more symptoms across all ages. There were no differences in age-related trajectories as a function of trauma history. In cross-sectional analysis, men with combat and noncombat trauma had more posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, but not more depression symptoms, than men with either no trauma or noncombat trauma only. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering physical as well as psychological outcomes of exposure to traumatic events.     

Stability and change in retrospective reports of childhood experiences over a 5-year period: Findings from the Davis Longitudinal Study.

The paths via which childhood experiences influence well-being in adulthood are not well defined because most research relies on retrospective reports. This study examined the influence of demographic characteristics and current mood states on the reliability of reports of childhood experiences. The Child Experiences Scale (CES) was administered in 1996 and 2001 to participants in the Davis Longitudinal Study (N = 571; age range 22–61 years). Responses showed moderate to high cross-time reliability. Males were slightly more likely to change their responses. The influence of mood states was weak and more evident for global ratings of childhood than for specific experiences. These findings support the use of retrospective reports of childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and coping in stressful episodes.

15 depressed and 72 nondepressed middle-aged persons were repeatedly assessed over a 1-yr period with respect to the thoughts and actions they used in coping in specific stressful episodes. Depressed persons tended to appraise situations as requiring more information in order for them to act, but they were less likely to appraise situations as requiring their acceptance. Overall, the coping of depressed persons was characterized by seeking emotional and informational support and by wishful thinking, but they did not differ from nondepressed persons in amount of problem-focused coping or self-blame. Results are generally inconsistent with the learned helplessness model of depression and highlight the need to examine interpersonal aspects of depression. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and the incidence of hypertension among older men: Longitudinal findings from the Normative Aging Study.

Personality predictors of hypertension incidence were studied in 838 community-residing men from the Normative Aging Study. They were followed over a mean of 17 years during which time 38% developed hypertension. Stepwise proportional hazards regression was used to identify scales from the Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire that predicted hypertension incidence, controlling for biomedical, social, and behavioral risk factors. There was a significant negative relation between the personality trait of emotional stability and the incidence of hypertension, controlling for baseline blood pressure, education, and alcohol consumption. These results support those who argue that personality characteristics predict the development of hypertension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental health differences among retirees and workers: Findings from the normative aging study.

Researchers during the past decade have found little effect of retirement on physical health. However, retirement entails a number of losses, and its effect on mental health, as measured by the prevalence of psychological symptoms, is unclear. We examined psychological symptoms in a sample of 1,513 older men, participants in the Normative Aging Study, using the SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1983). Analyses of variance indicated that retirees reported more psychological symptoms than did workers, even after controlling for physical health status. Exploratory analyses examining the circumstances of retirement found no effects for length of retirement or part-time employment, but did find effects for the timing of retirement. Both early and late retirees reported more psychological symptoms. Late workers (aged 66 and older) reported the fewest symptoms. Reasons for these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotionality and mental health: Longitudinal findings from the normative aging study.

The present longitudinal study examined the relation between the temperament types of emotionality and extraversion, as assessed by the Eysenck Personality Inventory-Q (Floderus, 1974), and self-reported psychological symptoms 10 years later, as assessed by the revised version of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1983). The sample consisted of 1,324 older men, participants in the Normative Aging Study. Those high in emotionality were expected to report higher levels of symptoms than those low in emotionality. Symptoms of depression and anxiety, however, were hypothesized to be higher among emotional introverts, whereas hostility and psychoticism were expected to be higher among emotional extraverts. Canonical correlation analysis showed that emotionality and extraversion accounted for 25% of the variance in mental health 10 years later. However, emotionality accounted for most of the variance, with extraversion accounting for only 2%. The results are interpreted as support for the construct of negative affectivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vulnerability and resilience to combat exposure: Can stress have lifelong effects?

Examined whether appraisals of desirable and undesirable effects of military service mediated the effect of combat stress on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in later life in 1,287 male veterans (aged 44–91 yrs), 40% of whom had been in combat. The men reported more desirable effects of military service (e.g., mastery, self-esteem, and coping skills) than undesirable ones; both increased linearly with combat exposure. Path analysis revealed that the appraisals were independent and opposite mediators, with undesirable effects increasing and desirable effects decreasing the relationship between combat exposure and PTSD, even controlling for depression and response style. Although lifelong negative consequences of combat exposure were observed, perceiving positive benefits from this stressful experience mitigated the effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construct validation of optimism and pessimism in older men: Findings from the normative aging study.

Validation of M. F. Scheier and C. S. Carver's (1985) Life Orientation Test has identified associations between bipolar optimism and several external constructs. However, optimism and pessimism may not be bipolar, but rather separate constructs. Furthermore, these constructs may be indistinguishable from personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion. This study examined the associations of separate optimism and pessimism measures with self-reports of hassles, psychological symptoms, and illness severity, controlling for personality. Ss were 1,192 men from the Normative Aging Study. Findings suggest that optimism and pessimism are separate and that their relations to external criteria remain, although attenuated, when neuroticism and extraversion are controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)