Structural equation modeling of multitrait-multimethod data: Different models for different types of methods.

The question as to which structural equation model should be selected when multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) data are analyzed is of interest to many researchers. In the past, attempts to find a well-fitting model have often been data-driven and highly arbitrary. In the present article, the authors argue that the measurement design (type of methods used) should guide the choice of the statistical model to analyze the data. In this respect, the authors distinguish between (a) interchangeable methods, (b) structurally different methods, and (c) the combination of both kinds of methods. The authors present an appropriate model for each type of method. All models allow separating measurement error from trait influences and trait-specific method effects. With respect to interchangeable methods, a multilevel confirmatory factor model is presented. For structurally different methods, the correlated trait-correlated (method-1) model is recommended. Finally, the authors demonstrate how to appropriately analyze data from MTMM designs that simultaneously use interchangeable and structurally different methods. All models are applied to empirical data to illustrate their proper use. Some implications and guidelines for modeling MTMM data are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of an implemental mind-set on attitude strength.

The authors investigated whether an implemental mind-set fosters stronger attitudes. Participants who made a decision about how to act (vs. those who held off) expressed a more extreme attitude toward an issue unrelated to the decision (Experiment 1). Participants who planned the implementation of a decision (vs. deliberated vs. control) exhibited less ambivalent (Experiment 2) and more accessible (Experiment 3) attitudes toward various objects unrelated to the decision. Moreover, an attitude reported by planning participants better predicted self-reported behavior 1 week later (Experiment 4). Finally, results suggest that the effect of an implemental mind-set on attitude strength toward unrelated objects is driven by a focus on information that supports an already-made decision (Experiment 5). Implications for attitudes, goals, and mind-sets are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of deliberative and implemental mind-sets on illusion of control.

In Experiment 1, Ss worked on 2 identical apparatuses in an attempt to turn on the target light by pressing or not pressing a button. In Experiment 2, the 1st experimental group was asked to complete a mental exercise that requested the deliberation of an unresolved personal problem, whereas a 2nd experimental group was requested to plan the implementation of a personal goal. Ss in both groups were then asked to find out how to turn on the target light on an apparatus that produced frequent noncontingent outcomes. A control group worked on this contingency task without any pretreatment. The control judgments of the 1st experimental group were much more accurate than those of the 2nd experimental group or the control group. Overall findings suggest that people who are trying to make decisions develop a deliberative mind-set that allows for a realistic view of action–outcome expectancies, whereas people who try to act on a decision develop an implemental mind-set that promotes illusionary optimism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

PERMAS-RA/STRUREL system of programs for probabilistic reliability analysis

Programs for reliability analysis of structural, operational and other systems based on first- and second-order reliability concepts were made available as early as 1976 by the Technical University of Munich. In the meantime and since 1987 by RCP Consult GmbH (RCP) the programs have experienced many revisions, improvements and additional developments. The programs now cover the preparatory steps as well as the computational tasks in technical reliability, decision making under uncertainty and in statistical analysis. Important modules of strurel have also been embedded in the finite element program permas developed and maintained by INTES GmbH (INTES). The programs have been used in structural engineering and code making, in hydrology, operations research, financial planning and mathematical statistics and, in particular, in the nuclear power plant, offshore, ship, automotive and aerospace industry.     

Heinz Heckhausen (1926–1988): Obituary.

H. Heckhausen served as director of the Max Planck Institute for Psychological Research and was active in bridging American and German psychological traditions. Heckhausen's research interests were in achievement motivation, investigating the path from wishes to goal attainment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflective and reflexive action control in patients with frontal brain lesions.

Two types of action control derived from the model of action phases (H. Heckhausen & P. M. Gollwitzer, 1987) were analyzed in patients with frontal lesions, patients with nonfrontal lesions, and university students. In Study 1, reflective action control in terms of goal selection was assessed, and impaired deliberation was found in patients with frontal lesions. Study 2 assessed reflexive action control in terms of automatic action initiation as a result of forming implementation intentions (P. M. Gollwitzer, 1999). All participants sped up their responses to critical stimuli by forming implementation intentions. Moreover, lesion patients with weak performances on the Tower of Hanoi (TOH) task did worse than patients with strong TOH performances in Study 1 but better than control participants in Study 2. Findings are interpreted as a functional dissociation between conscious reflective action control and automatic reflexive action control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implementation intentions and efficient action initiation.

Implementation intentions ("If I encounter Situation X, then I'll perform Behavior Y!") are postulated to instigate automatic action initiation (P. M. Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999). In 4 studies, the hypothesis was tested that implementation intentions lead to immediate action initiation once the specified situation is encountered, even under conditions of high cognitive load. First, individuals whose action control is known to be hampered by disruptive cognitive business, such as opiate addicts under withdrawal (Study 1) and schizophrenic patients (Study 2), benefited from forming implementation intentions. Second, the beneficial effect of implementation intentions was also found in 2 experiments with university students (Studies 3 and 4) in which cognitive load was experimentally induced by using dual task paradigms. Results of the 4 studies suggest that forming implementation intentions instigates immediate action initiation that is also efficient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal Contagion: Perceiving Is for Pursuing.

Six studies examined the goal contagion hypothesis, which claims that individuals may automatically adopt and pursue a goal that is implied by another person's behavior. Participants were briefly exposed to behavioral information implying a specific goal and were then given the opportunity to act on the goal in a different way and context. Studies 1-3 established the goal contagion phenomenon by showing that the behavioral consequences of goal contagion possess features of goal directedness: (a) They are affected by goal strength, (b) they have the quality of goal appropriateness, and (c) they are characterized by persistence. Studies 4-6 show that people do not automatically adopt goals when the observed goal pursuit is conducted in an unacceptable manner, because the goal will then be perceived as unattractive. The results are discussed in the context of recent research on automatic goal pursuits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)