Impact of parental discipline methods on the child's internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view.

It is generally argued that parental use of specific discipline techniques (e.g., reasoning vs power assertion) differentially affects a child's internalization. This article offers an expanded formulation. Internalization as a result of discipline is proposed to be based on a child's accurate perception of the parental message and acceptance or rejection of it. Mechanisms promoting acceptance are perceptions of the parent's actions as appropriate, motivation to accept the parental position, and perception that a value has been self-generated. Features of the misdeed, discipline technique, child, and parent that affect accurate perception and acceptance–rejection are outlined. Other goals besides internalization, such as movement beyond the parent's position, maintenance of the child's self-esteem, and maintenance of the parent–child relationship, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting goals as organizers of responses to parent–child disagreement.

Parenting goals are outcomes that parents hope to achieve during interactions with children. Three studies involving 138 men (78 fathers) and 158 women (110 mothers) examined the causes and consequences of parents' focusing on various goals during disagreements with young children. Women were more likely than men to focus on relationship-centered (RC) goals, public situations increased concern for short-term parent-centered (PC) goals, and empathy was predictive of long-term child-centered (CC) and RC goals. PC goals were associated with power assertion, CC goals with reasoning, and RC goals with warm, negotiating, and cooperative parenting behavior. Attributions of intentionality and dispositional causation were possible mediators of the link between power assertion and PC and CC goals. Instructions to focus on PC goals increased negative affective states and decreased sympathy for children, whereas instructions to focus on RC goals had the opposite effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution, reinforcement, and altruism: A developmental analysis.

Conducted 3 experiments with 256 7–10 yr olds in which Ss were induced to donate some of their winnings from a game to poor children. They were then praised for their behavior (reinforcement), told they must have donated because they were helpful people (attribution), or told nothing (control). Subsequent donation, and behavior on a variety of tests of generalized altruism, was assessed. The donation of all Ss was increased both by reinforcement and attributions of prosocial behavior. Neither reinforcement nor attribution affected the generalized altruism of 5-yr-olds, only attribution affected the generalized altruism of 8-yr-olds, and both reinforcement and attribution affected the generalized altruism of 10-yr-olds. Findings are discussed in terms of the effects of reinforcement and attribution on the child's developing self-concept. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

EIA/NRSC DAR systems subjective tests. II. Transmission impairments

For pt.I see ibid., vol.43, no.3, p.261-7 (1997). This paper describes the methods, results and conclusions of a series of subjective tests which were performed at the Communications Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, to assess the audio quality of digital audio radio (DAR) systems in the presence of transmission errors. Testing has been performed in a laboratory environment on the hardware implementation of nine DAR systems. One of the systems operated in the AM broadcast band, five in the FM broadcast band, two in the L-band and one in the S-band. Testing was done in the presence of transmission errors generated by additive white gaussian noise, co-channel interference and five different multipath mobile channels. In addition, one system was tested with an interfering signal in the lower first adjacent DAR channel. The test results are presented and discussed, for each type of transmission impairments, in terms of (a) the E_b/N₀ ratios (D/U ratios for co-channel and adjacent channel interference) at the threshold of audibility (TOA) of transmission errors and at the point where transmission errors are so important that the audio quality is unacceptable (point of failure or POF) and (b) the failure margin which is a measure of how quickly DAR systems fail when the received signal power is reduced. A new parameter, labeled C_SP/N₀, is proposed to quantify the power efficiency of the overall DAR systems (i.e. source coding plus channel coding and modulation subsystems). The spectral efficiency of DAR systems is also presented and discussed     

Multiple pathways to compliance: Mothers' willingness to cooperate and knowledge of their children's reactions to discipline.

Mothers of 59 children with ages from 6 to 9 years were assessed for their general willingness to cooperate with their children's desires and their accurate predictions of their children's evaluations of different discipline strategies. Mothers asked their children to clean up a playroom in their absence, with some children protesting and others not protesting. Results showed that maternal willing cooperation predicted children's compliance in the absence but not in the presence of protest. Conversely, maternal accuracy concerning their children's evaluations of discipline facilitated children's compliance in dyads in which children expressed initial resistance but not if children indicated no opposition. Mothers' responsive reactions to protest mediated between maternal accuracy and children's ultimate compliance. Results indicate that specific features of parenting facilitate compliance in specific situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Authoritarian parenting in individualist and collectivist groups: Associations with maternal emotion and cognition and children's self-esteem.

Mothers and children between the ages of 7 and 12, from individualist (Western European) and collectivist (Egyptian, Iranian, Indian, and Pakistani) backgrounds, completed assessments of children's self-esteem, maternal authoritarianism, and mothers' thoughts and feelings about their children. Collectivist mothers endorsed authoritarian parenting more than did individualist mothers but did not feel or think more negatively about their children, and collectivist children were not lower in self-esteem. Within both groups, maternal negative affect and cognition were associated with lower self-esteem in children. However, maternal authoritarianism was associated with maternal negative emotion and cognition only in the individualist group. The results suggest that maternal negative thoughts and feelings, associated with authoritarianism in individualist but not collectivist groups, may be more detrimental to children's self-esteem than is authoritarianism in and of itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Summing up and looking to the future.

In response to commentaries on the model of discipline effectiveness proposed by J. E. Grusec and J. J. Goodnow (see record 1994-25033-001), it is noted that the model places as much emphasis on affect as on cognition and that it is certainly applicable to the preschool years. The development of a sense of self, ability to self-regulate, and attachment are discussed as important precursors of internalization. Further developmental considerations are offered in response to the commentaries, along with reiteration of the argument that range of acceptability of a child's behavior must be included in an account of parental discipline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning resistance to temptation through observation.

An adult model and 48 4–5 yr olds were tempted to deviate by a "talking table." On both an immediate and a delayed test, Ss who had seen the model yield deviated more quickly and for a longer period of time than control Ss who had not seen a model. Ss who had seen the model resist deviated less quickly and worked longer at a boring task. In a 2nd study with 80 5–8 yr olds, the tempting was done by a young woman. On several measures, only resisting models who rationalized their behavior were effective, and sometimes only with girls. Ss in the yielding model condition were less generous. It is argued that the procedures employed to study the effects of resisting and yielding models are important in determining their relative effectiveness. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Narrow view of attachment or broad view of protection? Rejoinder to the commentaries.

The authors address 3 general issues raised by the commentaries on S. Goldberg, J. E. Grusec, and J. M. Jenkins (see record 1999-15264-001) by J. Braungart-Rieker and J. Karrass (see record 1999-15264-003), S. Dickstein (see record 1999-15264-002), R. Isabella (see record 1999-15264-006), K. MacDonald (see record 1999-15264-004), and D. R. Pederson and G. Moran (see record 1999-15264-005). (a) In response to questions regarding the nature of protection, they outline a definition consistent with J. Bowlby's (1969) that extends beyond predation and survival to include protection in times of illness, injury, and emotional distress; (b) they argue that protective needs extend well beyond infancy into adulthood and are relevant to a lifespan perspective on attachment; and (c) the challenges of differentiating aspects of relationships are discussed, and the significance of a narrow definition of attachment in such efforts is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A view from elsewhere and some suggestions for change.

Comments on W. Thorngate's (see record 1991-03036-001) assertion that information overload causes a lack of familiarity with adjacent research, which impairs the ability to conduct research in a particular area. A survey revealed that biologists are no different than psychologists in terms of information production and consumption patterns. Solutions to information overload include informal communication, review articles, and collaborative research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)