Content analytic comparison of four expert counselors' approaches to family treatment: Ackerman, Bowen, Jackson, and Whitaker.

Conducted a multidimensional content analysis of 4 expert counselors' (N. Ackerman, M. Bowen, D. Jackson, and C. Whitaker) approaches to family treatment. Data were from the 1969 Hillcrest Families Series (produced by R. Birdwhistell), films of these experts conducting assessment interviews with the same family. The natural language in these interviews reveal that Ss' behaviors both converged and diverged. Although these Ss did not represent separate theoretical schools, the distinctive features in their sessions were consistent with their theoretical emphases. Across interviews, commonalities included (a) the parents as the most active participants; (b) a focus on the parental subsystem; and (c) similar proportions of certain types of counselor responses (e.g., informative directives). A fair proportion of Ss' messages were indirect (addressed to someone other than the target of the communication). Based on these results and an earlier study by the 1st 2 authors (see record 1985-07308-001) of the same interviews, 2 common change factors in family counseling are proposed: disruption of the existing balance of power among family members and education in the nature and strength of family systems. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalizing from segments to sessions: Should it be done?

This article addresses two methodological questions that are crucial for research on the natural language in the counseling process: (a) What fraction, or segment, of an interview best represents the entire interview? (b) Do different starting points yield different results? Using a variety of data sets and process measures, we tested segment generalizability in different formats of counseling (individual and family) and with different coding systems (of client and counselor behavior). Results from three studies suggested that, whereas starting points made little difference, generalizing from any size segment to a whole session should not be done when interviews are examined individually. On the other hand, when interviews are aggregated, even fairly small segments can be sampled reliably. In making their own sampling decisions, investigators should consider theoretical and clinical significance and conduct subsample generalizability tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of reflection of feeling and probe on client self-referenced affect.

Examined the relative effectiveness of reflection of feeling and probe in eliciting self-referenced affect in a low-structured counseling situation with 40 female undergraduates. Both reflection of feeling and probe significantly increased client production of self-referenced affect, indicating the feasibility of training counselors to utilize both reflection of feeling and probe as appropriate counselor responses for increasing client feeling statements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A spatial view of the interpersonal structure of family interviews: Similarities and differences across counselors.

Compared the interpersonal structure in interviews conducted by 4 founders of the family therapy movement—N. Ackerman, M. Bowen, D. Jackson, and C. Whitaker—with the same family to determine the extent of similarity and identify common features across counselors. Multidimensional scaling provided a spatial representation of the hidden structure in the communication patterns of these interviews. Each of the 4 analyses showed 2 dimensions that explained most of the variance, 72–85%. Correlations among the 4 2-dimensional solutions were high, especially between Ackerman and Whitaker (.75) and Bowen and Jackson (.99), indicating that these counselors' interactions with the family were remarkably similar. The therapists' postinterview impressions of the family suggested a basis for understanding the similarities and variability in the 4 spatial configurations. Interpretation suggested that all the counselors joined the family from a position of power, respecting the parents' distress and the established hierarchy by interacting more with them than with the children. Bowen and Jackson aligned themselves closely with the parents, whereas Ackerman and Whitaker were at the edge of the family. Discussion focuses on common features in counselors' work with families and how multidimensional scaling can chart changes in family structure over the course of counseling. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analyzing patterns and sequence in counseling: Reactions of a counseling process researcher.

Comments that by presenting 3 sequential analysis techniques, J. W. Lichtenberg and E. J. Heck (see record 1986-30903-001) have provided counseling psychology with valuable tools for analyzing the counseling process. The present author identifies several issues to consider in making informed decisions about their use, including dependent variable selection and the counselor–client unit of analysis, assumptions, construct definition and interpretation, pragmatic concerns, and model limitations. Suggestions are made for ways in which sequential analysis can be utilized in counseling process research. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of situational variables on affective self-disclosure with acquaintances.

Situational variables influencing affective self-disclosure within the acquaintance intimacy level were examined in simulated dyadic interactions with 40 female and 36 male undergraduates. Females expressed more feelings than males, while across sexes, Ss disclosed more positive feelings as respondents than as initiators. Significant interactions revealed that affective self-disclosure is situation specific, with Ss responding with positive feelings being the most facilitative context for disclosure. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of situational factors, sex, and attitude on affective self-disclosure and anxiety.

Examined the effects of sex of S and the situational factors of S role, type of feeling, and sex of best friend in relation to affective self-disclosure and self-reported anxiety of 20 male and 20 female undergraduates in simulated dyadic interactions. The relationship between attitude toward expressing feelings and affective self-disclosure behavior was also explored. The 2–4 repeated measures ANOVA for affective self-disclosure revealed significant main effects for all factors except S role. Significant interactions revealed that affective self-disclosure is sex-linked and situation specific, with females initiating positive feelings to their same-sex best friend being the most facilitative context for disclosure. Self-report anxiety results indicated that more anxiety was experienced when negative feelings were expressed. A significant correlation between Ss' attitude and performance scores was obtained, indicating that favorable attitudes toward expressing feelings are positively related to the expression of feelings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, instructions, and verbal conditioning on self-referenced affect in a counseling interview.

Examined the relationships between locus of control, specificity of instruction, and verbal conditionability on self-referenced affect in a counseling analog interview. 118 female undergraduates were administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. On the basis of scores tabulated for H. L. Mirels's factor of personal internality, 40 Ss were classified as internals or externals and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: general instructions or specific instructions. All Ss then participated in an interview with a counselor. The interview was divided into 3 sections: baseline, conditioning, and extinction. During the conditioning period, the counselor verbalized self-referenced affect and reflection of feeling on a 2-min interval schedule. Results indicate that specific instructions combined with verbal conditioning procedures produced the greatest increase in self-referenced affect for both internal and external Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to the directive and instigational functions of instructions on internal/external Ss. Implications for future research are outlined. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social modeling, cognitive structuring, and self-management strategies on affective self-disclosure.

Assessed immediate and delayed effects of social modeling, cognitive structuring, and 2 self-management strategies for increasing affective self-disclosure in 48 undergraduate males. Ss were randomly assigned to (a) social modeling, (b) cognitive structuring, (c) attention placebo, or (d) no-training control groups. Following training, Ss took a performance test and 2 pencil-and-paper measures. With this treatment used as a blocking variable, Ss were then randomly assigned to (a) goal-directed behavior, (b) self-reinforcement, or (c) no-training control groups. A delayed posttest was administered 3 wks later. Results indicate that social modeling and cognitive structuring had immediate effects on affective self-disclosure. Also, a combination of social learning and self-management strategies was more effective over time than any single treatment or no treatment at all. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)