Instructional designs for the development of transferable knowledge and skills: A cognitive load perspective

This paper analyzes the main points and results of a set of the previous papers in this Special Issue from the point of view of developing characteristics of flexible—transferable—expertise. It focuses on cognitive load issues related to the acquisition of deep transferable knowledge structures and developing metacognitive and self-regulation skills. The contributions to this Special Issue demonstrate that appropriate instructional support and optimal levels of control over the learning processes, enhanced by self-explanation and self-visualization techniques, may enhance learners’ abilities to transfer their knowledge and skills. Better understanding of the role of germane cognitive load, as well as our abilities to measure different types of load and high-level cognitive processes are essential for further progress in this area.     

When less is more in cognitive diagnosis: A rapid online method for diagnosing learner task-specific expertise.

Rapid cognitive diagnosis allows measuring current levels of learner domain-specific knowledge in online learning environments. Such measures are required for individualizing instructional support in real time, as students progress through a learning session. This article describes 2 experiments designed to validate a rapid online diagnostic method that was inspired by experimental procedures applied in classical cognitive studies of chess expertise. With the described rapid verification method, learners are required to rapidly verify suggested steps at various stages of a problem solution procedure. In this study involving 33 university students, a high degree of correlation was found between rapid testing scores and results of in-depth cognitive diagnosis based on observations of problem-solving steps using video recordings and concurrent verbal reports in the domains of kinematics (vector addition motion problems) and mathematics (transforming graphs of linear and quadratic functions). The article discusses possible applications of the suggested method in adaptive learning environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning

It is frequently assumed that presenting the same material in written and spoken form benefits learning and understanding. The present work provides a theoretical justification based on cognitive load theory, and empirical evidence based on controlled experiments, that this assumption can be incorrect. From a theoretical perspective, it is suggested that if learners are required to coordinate and simultaneously process redundant material such as written and spoken text, an excessive working memory load is generated. Three experiments involving a group of 25 technical apprentices compared the effects of simultaneously presenting the same written and auditory textual information as opposed to either temporally separating the two modes or eliminating one of the modes. The first two experiments demonstrated that nonconcurrent presentation of auditory and visual explanations of a diagram proved superior, in terms of ratings of mental load and test scores, to a concurrent presentation of the same explanations when instruction time was constrained. The 3rd experiment demonstrated that a concurrent presentation of identical auditory and visual technical text (without the presence of diagrams) was significantly less efficient in comparison with an auditory-only text. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and evaluation of multimedia instructional systems and audiovisual displays.     

Instructing in generalized knowledge structures to develop flexible problem solving skills

In contrast to routine knowledge and skills, flexible problem solving is associated with the ability to apply one’s knowledge structures in relatively new situations. In the absence of specific knowledge-based guidance, such processes could be very cognitively demanding. This paper suggests that learning flexible problem solving skills could be enhanced by explicitly instructing learners in generalized forms of schematic knowledge structures that are applicable to a greater variety of problems. The paper presents results of an experimental study that has investigated this approach in learning the operation of a technical device, and discusses implications of these results for the design of computer-based instruction.     

When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.

Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring Knowledge to Optimize Cognitive Load Factors During Instruction.

The expertise reversal effect occurs when a learning procedure that is effective for novices becomes ineffective for more knowledgeable learners. The authors consider how to match instructional presentations to levels of learner knowledge. Experiments 1-2 were designed to develop a schema-based rapid method of measuring learners' knowledge in a specific area. Experimental data using algebra and geometry materials for students in Grades 9-10 indicated a highly significant correlation (up to .92) between performance on the rapid measure and traditional measures of knowledge, with test times reduced by factors of 4.9 and 2.5, respectively. Experiments 3-4 used this method to monitor learners' cognitive performance to determine which instructional design should be used for given levels of expertise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incorporating learner experience into the design of multimedia instruction.

In Experiment 1, inexperienced trade apprentices were presented with one of four alternative instructional designs: a diagram with visual text, a diagram with auditory text, a diagram with both visual and auditory text, or the diagram only. An auditory presentation of text proved superior to a visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. The diagram-only format was the least intelligible to inexperienced learners. When participants became more experienced in the domain after two specifically designed training sessions, the advantage of a visual diagram-auditory text format disappeared. In Experiment 2, the diagram-only group was compared with the audio-text group after an additional training session. The results were the reverse of those of Experiment 1: The diagram-only group outperformed the audio–text group. Suggestions are made for multimedia instruction that takes learner experience into consideration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative effectiveness of animated and static diagrams: An effect of learner prior knowledge

This paper investigates the relationship between instructional effectiveness of animated vs. static diagrams and levels of learner expertise in the task domain of transforming graphs of simple linear and quadratic functions. It was demonstrated on many occasions that instructional formats that are effective for low-knowledge learners could be ineffective, or even deleterious, for high-knowledge learners, and vice versa (the expertise reversal effect). The levels of learner (university students) expertise in this study were measured using an online rapid diagnostic method, a rapid verification technique, that involves presenting learners with a series of possible solution steps reflecting various stages of the solution procedure and asking them to rapidly verify the suggested steps. The results indicated a significant interaction between levels of learner expertise and instructional formats. Novice learners benefited more from static diagrams than from animated diagrams, while more knowledgeable learners benefited more from animated rather than static diagrams. A theoretical explanation of the effect is suggested within the framework of cognitive load theory.