Fatty Acid Biomarkers of Symbionts and Unusual Inhibition of Tetracosapolyenoic Acid Biosynthesis in Corals (Octocorallia)

Seven zooxanthellae-free species of octocorals (the genera Acanthogorgia, Acabaria, Chironephthya, Echinogorgia, Menella, Ellisella, and Bebryce) and two zooxanthellate octocorals (the genera Paralemnalia and Rumphella) were examined to elucidate their fatty acid (FA) composition. Arachidonic (about 40% of the total FA) and palmitic acids were predominant in all the species studied. Seven furan FA (F-acids) (up to 9.7%) were identified in the azooxanthellate octocorals. The main F-acids were 14,17-epoxy-15-methyldocosa-14,16-dienoic and 14,17-epoxy-15,16-dimethyldocosa-14,16-dienoic acids. In all specimens of Bebryce studeri, C_25–28 demospongic FA (about 20%) were identified. These FA reflect the presence of a symbiotic sponge in B. studeri and can be used as the specific markers for other corals. A significant difference (P < 0.01) between azooxanthellate and zooxanthellate corals was found for odd-chain and methyl-branched saturated FA, 18:1n-7, and 7-Me-16:1n-10; that indicated the presence of an advanced bacterial community in azooxanthellate corals. The zooxanthellate species were distinguished by significant amounts of 18:3n-6, 18:4n-3, and 16:2n-7 acids, which are proposed as the markers of zooxanthellae in soft corals. Contrary to the normal level of 24:5n-6 (9.4%) and 22:4n-6 (0.6%), unexpected low concentrations of 24:5n-6 (0.4%) accompanied by a high content of 22:4n-6 (up to 11.9%) were detected in some specimens. The presence of an unknown factor in octocorals, specific for n-6 PUFA, which inhibited elongation of 22:4n-6 to 24:4n-6, is conjectured.     

The Use of Lipids and Fatty Acids to Measure the Trophic Plasticity of the Coral Stylophora subseriata

Following up on previous investigations on the stress resistance of corals, this study assessed the trophic plasticity of the coral Stylophora subseriata in the Spermonde Archipelago (Indonesia) along an eutrophication gradient. Trophic plasticity was assessed in terms of lipid content and fatty acid composition in the holobiont relative to its plankton (50–300 μm) food as well as the zooxanthellae density, lipid, FA and chlorophyll a content. A cross-transplantation experiment was carried out for 1.5 months in order to assess the trophic potential of corals. Corals, which live in the eutrophied nearshore area showed higher zooxanthellae and chlorophyll a values and higher amounts of the dinoflagellate biomarker FA 18:4n-3. Their lipid contents were maintained at similar to levels from specimens further away from the anthropogenic impact source going up to 14.9 ± 0.9 %. A similarity percentage analysis of the groups holobiont, zooxanthellae and plankton >55 μm found that differences between the FA composition of the holobiont and zooxanthellae symbionts were more distinct in the site closer to the shore, thus heterotrophic feeding became more important. Transplanted corals attained very similar zooxanthellae, chlorophyll a and lipid values at all sites as the specimens originating from those sites, which indicates a high potential for trophic plasticity in the case of a change in food sources, which makes this species competitive and resistant to eutrophication.     

Effects of porous barriers such as coral reefs on coastal wave propagation

Observations following the Sumatra Tsunami in Sri Lanka have indicated significantly enhanced wave heights and water inundations in areas where coral poaching has been prevalent. It has been hypothesized [EOS, 86(33), 2005] that low-resistance paths created by coral removal have led to water jetting through them, while simultaneously reducing flow speeds in nearby coral-laden areas that offer higher bottom resistance to the flow. A laboratory experiment to verify this hypothesis is described in this paper, where corals are simulated using a submerged porous barrier made of a uniform array of rods that impose enhanced drag on the flow. The flow velocities pertinent to an oncoming solitary wave packet on a slope are measured in the presence and absence of the simulated uniform coral cover as well as with an opening (gap) in the coral canopy. It is shown that the coral canopy substantially decreases the flow velocity due to increase in the bottom drag coefficient, which is a strong function of the canopy porosity. The exit flow velocity from the gap is significantly higher compared to the surroundings, thus leading to jetting flow. The magnitude of jetting is a strong function of porosity, in addition to a suite of other parameters that accounts for waves, corals, water depth and gap size. The results support the notion that during isolated wave events the removal of natural barriers may cause local flow intensification, thus leading to adverse impacts on coastal assets and ecosystems in areas of barrier removal.     

Clionapyrrolidine A—A Metabolite from the Encrusting and Excavating Sponge Cliona tenuis that Kills Coral Tissue upon Contact

The Caribbean encrusting and excavating sponge Cliona tenuis successfully competes for space with reef corals by undermining, killing, and displacing live coral tissue at rates of up to 20 cm per year. The crude extract from this sponge, along with the more polar partitions, kills coral tissue and lowers the photosynthetic potential of coral zooxanthellae. We used a bioassay-guided fractionation of the extract to identify the compound(s) responsible. The crude extract, the aqueous partition, and compound 1, herein named clionapyrrolidine A [(−)-(5S)-2-imino-1-methylpyrrolidine-5-carboxylic acid], when incorporated into gels at close to natural volumetric concentrations, killed coral tissue when brought into forced contact with live coral for periods of 1–4 days. This is the first report of a pure chemical produced by a sponge that kills coral tissue upon direct contact. The results are consistent with the localized coral death that occurs when C. tenuis-colonized coral fragments are thrown forcibly against live coral during storms. However, healed C. tenuis fragments placed directly onto live coral were killed readily by coral defenses, and fragments placed in close proximity to coral did not have any effect on the adjacent coral tissue. Solutions of clionapyrrolidine A in sea water were only slightly toxic against live coral. Hence, the coral death naturally brought about by C. tenuis when undermining live coral does not occur through external release of allelochemicals; below-polyp mechanisms must be explored further. N-acetylhomoagmatine (2), originally isolated from Cliona celata from the Northeastern Atlantic, was also assayed for comparison purposes because of its structural similarity to siphonodictidine, a toxic compound produced by a coral excavating sponge of the genus Aka. The lack of activity of N-acetylhomoagmatine at close to natural concentrations seems to indicate that the guanidine moiety, which is also present in siphonodictidine, is not a sufficiently strong structural motif for activity against corals.