Gas-Chromatographic Analyses of the Subcaudal Gland Secretion of the European Badger (Meles meles) Part I: Chemical Differences Related to Individual Parameters

In many species, chemical signals are important in the context of intraspecific communication. European badgers (Meles meles) use the secretion of their subcaudal gland to mark both the environment and conspecifics. In this paper, we investigated the chemical composition of subcaudal gland secretions and how it varies among individuals according to group membership, season, sex, age, body condition, and reproductive status. We analyzed 66 samples by gas chromatography using a mass-spectrometer as detector. We found 110 different components, of which 21 were present in every profile. The chemical composition of the secretions proved to be highly individual-specific, but no single peak was found to be typical for one of the investigated categories (season, sex, etc.). Analyses of the relative area (% area) that every peak contributed to the overall profile area showed that, in general, group members have more similar profiles than do badgers from different groups. Composition varied over seasons and between sexes and was influenced by age, body condition, and reproductive status. We, therefore, conclude that the secretion not only encodes group membership and individuality as previously assumed, but might also convey information about fitness-related parameters.     

Chemistry of male mandibular gland secretions ofPhilanthus basilaris cresson andPhilanthus bicinctus (Mickel) (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)

Detailed chemical characterizations are provided for the species-specific mixtures of marking pheromones utilized by the male beewolvesPhilanthus basilaris andP. bicinctus. Successful analysis of these complex mixtures of 2-ketones, fatty acids, ethyl esters, and aldehydes was facilitated by the treatment of the crude extracts with 1,1-dimethylhydrazine and direct analysis of the resulting hydrazones, methyl esters, and starting ethyl esters by GC-MS.     

Scent-Marking in the Eurasian Beaver (Castor fiber) as a Means of Territory Defense

Beaver (Castor spp.) normally scent-mark by depositing castoreum and/or anal gland secretion on scent mounds close to the water's edge. The aim of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the Eurasian beaver (C. fiber) scent-marks as a means of territory defense. Scent-marking behavior was studied during an entire year (April 1, 1995–March 31, 1996) in seven adjacent territories along 9.2 km of the B River in Telemark County, Norway. The number and location of fresh scent marks were recorded biweekly. The main results showed that: (1) the number of scent marks in territories was significantly higher in spring, when dispersal of subadults normally occurs than during the rest of the year; (2) the number of scent marks was clumped near territorial borders; and (3) the number of scent marks was significantly greater upstream than downstream of the lodge.     

Effects of pubertal anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) administration on reproductive and aggressive behaviors in male rats.

Adolescence in human males is a hormonally sensitive period when many adult behaviors develop, including sexual and aggressive behaviors. Using a rat model, the authors examined the effects of three anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) during puberty: testosterone, nandrolone, and stanozolol. Copulation, vocalizations, scent-marking, and aggression were tested following AAS exposure. Relative to gonadally intact controls, rats injected with testosterone showed a significant increase in scent-marking and aggression in the opponent's home cage. Nandrolone had no effect. Stanozolol significantly inhibited all behaviors. Results suggest that depending on the chemical structure of the steroid, AAS exposure during puberty affects several androgen-dependent behaviors. Because adolescence in humans is a period of hormonal change, abuse of AAS, particularly stanozolol, during this time may disrupt the establishment of normal adult behavior patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social Signals Involved in Scent-Marking Behavior by Cheek-Rubbing in Alpine Marmots (Marmota marmota)

The Alpine marmot Marmota marmota is a territorial rodent. Resident adults regularly scent-mark their territory by cheek-rubbing, mainly on burrow entrances and along boundaries. The purpose of this three part study was to gain further insight into this scent-marking behavior by: (1) observing the response of free-ranging marmots to foreign scent marks, (2) confirming the glandular source of the marking substance by histologic examination of the temporal gland, and (3) identifying biologically active chemical fractions of the marking substance. To allow field tests, we developed a device consisting of a glass tube placed upside down over a stake. Two devices were simultaneously placed at one burrow entrance. On one device, a clean tube was used and, on the other, a tube alternatively coated with either whole natural scent-marking substances or various fractions obtained by solvent extraction or chromatographic separation from whole scent-marking substances. Subsequent observations showed a significant difference in the duration of nose contact and number of cheek-rubbing movements. Resident adult marmots sniffed and marked tubes bearing alien marks significantly more than clean control tubes. Similar differences in behavior were observed with ethanol extracts of whole scent-marking substances. Extracts obtained with pentane and dichloromethane showed no bioactivity, suggesting that highly polar compounds are the active substances in the Alpine marmot. The temporal gland is an exocrine gland located on each side of the head with numerous pores opening at the surface of the skin in the cheek area. GC-MS analysis of individually collected samples from these glands showed that over 30 compounds were consistently present. Seven of these compounds were identified. Two fractions were obtained and used together and separately in field tests. Fraction 1 was composed mainly of short-chain alcohols and alkanes, and fraction 2 had a more acid and ester composition. The fact that these two fractions were active together but not separately strongly suggests that the active territorial signal results from a synergistic interaction between several compounds.     

Gas-Chromatographic Analyses of the Subcaudal Gland Secretion of the European Badger (Meles meles) Part II: Time-Related Variation in the Individual-Specific Composition

Individuality in body odors has been described in a variety of species, but studies on time-related variation in individual scent are scarce. Here, we use GC-MS to investigate how chemical composition of subcaudal gland secretions of European badgers (Meles meles) varies over days, seasons, and from year to year, and how secretions change with the length of time for which they are exposed to the environment. Samples were divided into subsamples—one was frozen immediately and the remaining ones frozen after 2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hr, respectively—and many individual-specific characteristics of the scent-profiles remained stable over time. However, two components were negatively correlated with time, thus providing the possibility to determine the age of scent marks. The low variation found in scent profiles of samples collected from the same individual three days apart showed that the individual-specific scent is a true characteristic of the respective badger, and that trapping and subsequent sampling have little effect on the composition of subcaudal gland secretions. Long-term variation (i.e., over one year) in individual subcaudal scent profiles is not continuous, but periods of relative stability are followed by periods of rapid change, that can be related to badger biology. Annual variation between samples collected from the same individuals in winter 1998 and winter 1999, and in spring 1998 and spring 1999 was lower than seasonal variation. Therefore, the results of this study indicate the potential of an individual-specific scent signature in the subcaudal gland secretions of badgers evidencing that individual recognition is of high importance in this species.