Size Effect on the Cytotoxicity of Layered Black Phosphorus and Underlying Mechanisms

A systematic cytotoxicity study of layered black phosphorus (BP) is urgently needed before moving forward to its potential biomedical applications. Herein, bulk BP crystals are synthesized and exfoliated into layered BP with different lateral size and thickness. The cytotoxicity of as‐exfoliated layered BP is evaluated by a label‐free real‐time cell analysis technique, displaying a concentration‐, size‐, and cell type‐dependent response. The IC₅₀ values can vary by 40 and 30 times among the BP sizes and cell types, respectively. BP‐1 with the largest lateral size and thickness has the highest cytotoxicity; whereas the smallest BP‐3 only shows moderate toxicity. The sensitivity of three tested cell lines follows the sequence of 293T > NIH 3T3 > HCoEpiC. Two possible mechanisms for BP to induce cytotoxicity are proposed and verified: (1) the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) is detected by a ROS sensitive probe using the inverted fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry; (2) the interaction of layered BP and model cell membrane is examined by quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, illustrating the disruption of cell membrane integrity especially by the largest BP‐1. This systematic study of BP's cytotoxicity will shed light on its future biomedical and environmental applications.