Estimation of daily exposure to 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals in Korean foods containing n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids

4-Hydroxy-2-alkenals are cytotoxic aldehydes generated from the oxidation of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The compounds have shown various biological effects via Schiff base adducts or Michael addition adducts at levels higher than physiological ones. To assess human exposure to 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals in the diet, 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals in vegetable oils, fish and shellfish were monitored using GC/MS/SIM. 2001 National Health and Nutrition Survey (2002) data were employed for the dietary intake pattern. The Korean daily exposure to 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals, excluding a possible one from fried food, was 4.3?µg?day^-1, constituted of 1.6?µg 4-hydroxy-2-hexenal (HHE) and 2.7?µg 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE). It was calculated that Koreans could be additionally exposed to more than 11.8?µg?day^-1 4-hydroxy-2-alkenal from fried foods. Thus, the combined exposure would be 16.1?µg?day^-1, which corresponds to 0.3?µg?kg^-1 body weight day^-1 for a 60?kg Korean adult. In spite of the biological toxicity of 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals, the risk for human could not be quantified due to the lack of a virtually safe dose of the compounds. However, considering the basal level of 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals in many tissues, the present value from the diet may not pose a significant risk for human health.