Simulation of ion imaging: sputtering, contrast, noise

Scanning ion microscopy has received a boost in the last decade, thanks to the development of novel ion sources employing light ions, like He⁺, or ions from inert gases, like Ne⁺ and Ar⁺. Scanning ion images, however, might not be as easy to interpret as SEM micrographs. The contrast mechanisms are different, and there is always a certain degree of sample sputtering. The latter effect, on the one hand, prevents assessing the resolution on the basis of a single image, and, on the other hand, limits the probing time and thus the signal-to-noise ratio that can be obtained. In order to fully simulate what happens when energetic ions impact on a sample, a Monte Carlo approach is often used. In this paper, a different approach is proposed. The contrast is simulated using curves of secondary electron yields versus the incidence angle of the beam, while the surface modification prediction is based on similar curves for the sputtering yield. Finally, Poisson noise from primary ions and secondary electrons is added to the image. It is shown that the evaluation of an ion imaging tool cannot be condensed in a single number, like the spot size or the edge steepness, but must be based on a more complex analysis taking into account at least three parameters: sputtering, contrast and signal-to-noise ratio. It is also pointed out that noise contributions from the detector cannot be neglected for they can actually be the limiting factor in imaging with focused ion beams. While providing already good agreement with experimental data in some imaging aspects, the proposed approach is highly modular. Further effects, like edge enhancement and detection, can be added separately.