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Occurrence and levels of indicator bacteriophages in bathing waters throughout Europe |
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| Authors: | Contreras-Coll N Lucena F Mooijman K Havelaar A Pierz V Boque M Gawler A Höller C Lambiri M Mirolo G Moreno B Niemi M Sommer R Valentin B Wiedenmann A Young V Jofre J |
| Affiliation: | a Department de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avenida Diagonal, 645, 08028, Barcelona, Spain b Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Millieuhygiëne, Laboratory of Water and Food Microbiology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands c Water and Environment Department, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France d Conselleria de Medi Ambient, Laboratori de Medi Ambient, Palma de Mallorca, Spain e The Environmental Agency-Exeter Laboratory, Exeter, UK f Institut für, Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, Kiel, Germany g Bacteriology Department, National School of Public Health, Athens, Greece h ARPA - Sezione provinciale di Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy i Laboratorio de Salud Publica-Laboratorio de Microbiologia, Gobierno Vasco, San Sebastian, Spain j Finnish Environment Agency, Helsinki, Finland k Hygiene Institut, University of Wien, Wien, Austria l Parc Euromédecine, Institute Bouisson Bertrand, Montpellier, France m Allgemeine Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany n Public Analyst's Laboratory, Eastern Health Board, Dublin, Ireland |
| Abstract: | Somatic coliphages, F-specific RNA bacteriophages, bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides fragilis, Escherichia coli and enterococci were counted in bathing waters in the late spring and summer. We tested fresh and marine bathing waters from North, South, East and West Europe expected to contain between 100 and 500 E. coli per 100 ml, although wider ranges were sometimes found. Bacteriophages were counted after concentration, since a preliminary study proved that this step was necessary to obtain positive counts. During monitoring, a first-line quality control with reference materials for bacteria and bacteriophages was performed by all the laboratories participating in the study. The same microbes were also counted in raw sewage samples from various areas in Europe, where the bacterial indicators and the three groups of bacteriophages were detected in roughly the same numbers. All groups of bacteriophages were detected in both fresh and marine bathing waters throughout Europe. Reliable and complete results from 147 samples showed that for log-transformed values, E. coli and bacteriophages were slightly correlated. However, the slope of the regression line changed according to E. coli concentration and the correlation diminished when this concentration was close to zero per 100 ml. The ratios between E. coli and phages in bathing waters differed significantly from those in sewage. The relative amounts of bacteriophages, mainly somatic coliphages and phages infecting Bact. fragilis RYC2056, increased in bathing waters with low E. coli concentration, especially in seawater samples containing <100 E. coli per 100 ml. The relationship of bacteriophages with respect to enterococci paralleled that of bacteriophages with respect to E. coli. Somatic coliphages and bacteriophages infecting Bact. fragilis are useful to predict the presence of some pathogens with the same origin as present bacterial indicators but with higher survival rates. |
| Keywords: | Somatic coliphages F-specific phages Phages of Bact fragilis Bacterial indicators Bathing water |
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