Optimum electrode geometry for spinal cord stimulation: the narrow bipole and tripole

From a pathophysiological perspective, several studies have been performed on cytokines in chronic renal failure patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Because the peritoneal macrophages in CAPD patients produce some cytokines and the urinary secretion route for cytokines lost in those patients, CAPD patients are considered to have different plasma cytokine levels. Among the various cytokines, research on certain inflammatory cytokine levels has been reported. In studies of CAPD patients, peripheral blood and dialysate can be used as specimens. There are two methods of research. One involves determining the cytokine concentration in specimens and culture supernatant, while the other is to determine the mRNA expression of mononuclear cells in specimens and cultured mononuclear cells. The plasma levels of macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) were measured in CAPD patients without peritonitis. Plasma M CSF, GM CSF and G-CSF levels in CAPD patients were higher than those in healthy volunteers (p < 0.0001).