Drug resistance to 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine, 2',2'-difluorodeoxycytidine, and cytosine arabinoside conferred by retroviral-mediated transfer of human cytidine deaminase cDNA into murine cells

Squamous metaplasia can be demonstrated in about 4% of all invasive carcinomas of the breast. Primary squamous cell carcinomas of the breast are rare, since they occur in less than 1% of all primary invasive breast carcinomas. In order to classify a breast tumor as a primary squamous cell carcinoma one must exclude an epidermal origin, especially from the nipple region and the possibility of metastatic infiltration of the breast by a squamous cell carcinoma from a different location. Causative and formal pathogenesis of primary squamous cell carcinoma of the breast is not clear. A pluripotent embryonal stem cell origin is discussed, considering the phylogenetic descent of the mammary gland from skin appendages. Squamous metaplasia is also suggested to be a precursor of squamous cell carcinoma. Here endocrine stimulation and chronic inflammation may both play an inductive role. The number of published cases of squamous cell carcinomas developing years and decades after implantation of silicon prostheses has increased in recent years. These tumors probably develop on top of squamous metaplasia induced by the inflammatory pseudocapsule. Estimating the prognosis and therapeutic management in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the breast should follow the same guidelines as for other squamous cell cancers.