Mechanochemical synthesis and cold sintering of mussel shell-derived hydroxyapatite nano-powders for bone tissue regeneration

According to the circular economy principles, processing routes aiming at reducing the natural resources consumption and the energy demand can be addressed as ‘green’. In this framework, mussel shells, a natural feedstock of calcium carbonate, were successfully transformed into nano-crystalline hydroxyapatite by mechanochemical synthesis at room temperature after mixing with a phosphoric acid solution. The as-synthesized powder was then consolidated up to 82 % relative density by cold sintering (600 MPa, 200 °C). The materials were fully investigated by physical, chemical and thermal characterization techniques. Cold-sintered samples were also subjected to biaxial flexural strength test, showing a flexural resistance of 23 MPa. Cell viability assessment revealed that cold sintered hydroxyapatite derived from mussel shells promotes faster adhesion and spreading of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells, in comparison to a commercial hydroxyapatite sintered at 1050 °C. Therefore, cold-sintered mussel shells-derived hydroxyapatite can be a promising future candidate scaffold for bone tissue regeneration.