Effects of kappa-opioid receptor stimulation in the heart and the involvement of protein kinase C

Agitation in the elderly, manifested by verbal and physical aggression, frequently results in increased morbidity and mortality for nursing home residents and reduced morale for the family and nursing home staff. It is also responsible for increased costs associated with caring for these residents. Pharmacologic interventions are often used but are frequently ineffective and associated with significant adverse effects. Few controlled studies of drug treatment are available, but divalproex sodium and carbamazepine are effective and well tolerated by this population. Divalproex sodium has advantages of fewer adverse side effects and drug-drug interactions.