Illicit drug consumption estimations derived from wastewater analysis: A critical review |
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Authors: | Alexander L.N. van NuijsSara Castiglioni Isabela TarcomnicuCristina Postigo Miren Lopez de AldaHugo Neels Ettore ZuccatoDamia Barcelo Adrian Covaci |
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Affiliation: | a Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgiumb Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italyc Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, IDAEA-CSIC, C/ Lordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spaind Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Emili Grahit 101, Eidifici H2O, Parc Cientific i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, 17003, Girona, Spaine Ecophysiology, Biochemistry and Toxicology Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium |
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Abstract: | The consumption of illicit drugs causes indisputable societal and economic damage. Therefore it is necessary to know their usage levels and trends for undertaking targeted actions to reduce their use. Recently, a new approach (namely sewage epidemiology) was developed for the estimation of illicit drug use based on measurements of urinary excreted illicit drugs and their metabolites in untreated wastewater. This review aims at critically evaluating the published literature and identifying research gaps of sewage epidemiology. Firstly, the existing analytical procedures for the determination of the four most used classes of illicit drugs worldwide (cannabis, cocaine, opiates and amphetamine-like stimulants) and their metabolites in wastewater are summarized and discussed. The focus lies on the sample preparation and on the analysis with chromatographic techniques coupled to mass spectrometry. Secondly, back-calculations used to transform measured concentrations in wastewater (in ng/L) into an amount of used illicit drug (in g/day per 1000 inhabitants or doses/day per 1000 inhabitants) are discussed in detail for the four groups of illicit drugs. Sewage epidemiology data from Spain, Belgium, UK, Italy, Switzerland and USA are summarized and compared with data from international organisations, such as the European Monitoring Centre for Drug and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). The results derived from wastewater analysis show in general good agreement with existing prevalence data (percentage of a population that uses illicit drugs at a given time) and demonstrate the potential of sewage epidemiology. However, this review confirms that future work should focus on further optimisation and standardisation of various important parameters (e.g. sample collection and back-calculations). In the future, sewage epidemiology could be used in routine drug monitoring campaigns as a valuable tool in addition to the classical socio-epidemiological studies for the determination of local, national and international illicit drug use. |
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Keywords: | Illicit drugs Wastewater Analysis Sewage epidemiology Drug consumption Estimates |
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