The history and future of direct manipulation

Abstract

The earliest interactive computer systems were based on a conversational mode of interaction in which user and computer communicated through the exchange of linguistic utterances. Since the advent of ‘direct manipulation’ technology there has been a tendency to develop and promote an alternative mode of interaction, based on the user's manipulation of computer-displayed objects. This paper reviews recent developments in the implementation and understanding of direct manipulation interfaces. These point to various limitations in manipulative interaction which might be overcome through the selective reintroduction of conversational interaction. A new philosophy of graceful interaction is suggested to accommodate these developments in which directness is said to be a property of both action and language based systems. A number of practical guidelines are offered to reduce the incidence of clumsy manipulation.