Proton-exchanged LiNbO3 waveguides: the effects ofpost-exchange annealing and buffered melts as determined by infraredspectroscopy, optical waveguide measurements, and hydrogen isotopicexchange reactions

Infrared spectroscopy in the OH stretching region has been used to determine the extent of proton exchange in x- and z-cut lithium niobate as a function of temperature and time. The behavior observed is consistent with the occurrence of a diffusion-limited process within LiNbO₃. Apparent activation energies for the process determined from infrared spectroscopic measurements are consistent with the existence of a minimum exchange temperature and show that a relationship exists between waveguide depth and absorption band area. The measurements are also shown that hydrogen-bonded OH is substantially removed by annealing and that the extent of its formation is reduced by using buffered (lithium benzoate/benzoic acid) melts. It is suggested that hydrogen-bonded OH groups are responsible for many of the problems associated with proton-exchanged waveguides. Therefore, implementation of either annealing or buffered melts as part of the fabrication process is required to realize good-quality proton-exchanged waveguides