翼梢涡风洞研究中的摆动问题

采用激光粒子成像速度仪(PIV)对一矩形机翼(NACA0012)模型所产生的翼梢涡进行了风洞测试研究.测量位置为机翼近场尾迹,即x/c=3垂直于流动方向的截面,这里x为机翼后缘和测量截面之间的距离,c是机翼弦长.实验中基于弦长的雷诺数范围在3.4×104～26.6×104,通过分析所测得的涡量、切向速度和环量等,发现翼梢涡的摆动幅度与流过机翼上流体是否发生边界层分离有直接关系.     

Improvement of the aerodynamic performance by wing flexibility and elytra–hind wing interaction of a beetle during forward flight

In this work, the aerodynamic performance of beetle wing in free-forward flight was explored by a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) simulation with measured wing kinematics. It is shown from the CFD results that twist and camber variation, which represent the wing flexibility, are most important when determining the aerodynamic performance. Twisting wing significantly increased the mean lift and camber variation enhanced the mean thrust while the required power was lower than the case when neither was considered. Thus, in a comparison of the power economy among rigid, twisting and flexible models, the flexible model showed the best performance. When the positive effect of wing interaction was added to that of wing flexibility, we found that the elytron created enough lift to support its weight, and the total lift (48.4 mN) generated from the simulation exceeded the gravity force of the beetle (47.5 mN) during forward flight.     

Power reduction and the radial limit of stall delay in revolving wings of different aspect ratio

Airplanes and helicopters use high aspect ratio wings to reduce the power required to fly, but must operate at low angle of attack to prevent flow separation and stall. Animals capable of slow sustained flight, such as hummingbirds, have low aspect ratio wings and flap their wings at high angle of attack without stalling. Instead, they generate an attached vortex along the leading edge of the wing that elevates lift. Previous studies have demonstrated that this vortex and high lift can be reproduced by revolving the animal wing at the same angle of attack. How do flapping and revolving animal wings delay stall and reduce power? It has been hypothesized that stall delay derives from having a short radial distance between the shoulder joint and wing tip, measured in chord lengths. This non-dimensional measure of wing length represents the relative magnitude of inertial forces versus rotational accelerations operating in the boundary layer of revolving and flapping wings. Here we show for a suite of aspect ratios, which represent both animal and aircraft wings, that the attachment of the leading edge vortex on a revolving wing is determined by wing aspect ratio, defined with respect to the centre of revolution. At high angle of attack, the vortex remains attached when the local radius is shorter than four chord lengths and separates outboard on higher aspect ratio wings. This radial stall limit explains why revolving high aspect ratio wings (of helicopters) require less power compared with low aspect ratio wings (of hummingbirds) at low angle of attack and vice versa at high angle of attack.     

Aerodynamic properties of a wing performing unsteady rotational motions at low Reynolds number

Summary The aerodynamic forces and flow structures of a wing of relatively small aspect ratio in some unsteady rotational motions at low Reynolds number (Re=100) are studied by numerically solving the Navier-Stokes equations. These motions include a wing in constant-speed rotation after a fast start, wing accelerating and decelerating from one rotational speed to another, and wing rapidly pitching-up in constant speed rotation. When a wing performs a constant-speed rotation at small Reynolds number after started from rest at large angle of attack (=35°), a large lift coefficient can be maintained. The mechanism for the large lift coefficient is that for a rotating wing: the variation of the relative velocity along the wing-span causes a pressure gradient and hence a spanwise flow which can prevent the dynamic stall vortex from shedding. When a wing is rapidly accelerating or decelerating from one rotational speed to another, or rapidly pitching-up during constant speed rotation, even if the aspect ratio of the wing is small and the flow Reynolds number is low, a large aerodynamic force can be obtained. During these rapid unsteady motions, new layers of strong vorticity are formed near the wing surfaces in very short time, resulting in a large time rate of change of the fluid impulse which is responsible for the generation of the large aerodynamic force.     

Flight efficiency is a key to diverse wing morphologies in small insects

Insect wings are hybrid structures that are typically composed of veins and solid membranes. In some of the smallest flying insects, however, the wing membrane is replaced by hair-like bristles attached to a solid root. Bristles and membranous wing surfaces coexist in small but not in large insect species. There is no satisfying explanation for this finding as aerodynamic force production is always smaller in bristled than solid wings. This computational study suggests that the diversity of wing structure in small insects results from aerodynamic efficiency rather than from the requirements to produce elevated forces for flight. The tested wings vary from fully membranous to sparsely bristled and were flapped around a wing root with lift- and drag-based wing kinematic patterns and at different Reynolds numbers (Re). The results show that the decrease in aerodynamic efficiency with decreasing surface solidity is significantly smaller at Re = 4 than Re = 57. A replacement of wing membrane by bristles thus causes less change in energetic costs for flight in small compared to large insects. As a consequence, small insects may fly with bristled and solid wing surfaces at similar efficacy, while larger insects must use membranous wings for an efficient production of flight forces. The above findings are significant for the biological fitness and dispersal of insects that fly at elevated energy expenditures.     

OpenGL在FBG传感网络结构健康监测中的应用

对飞机机翼三维重建方法及其应用进行了研究,并采用开放性图形库OpenGL(Open Graphics Librar-y)三维图形软件接口标准,在Visual C 6.0平台下开发了基于光纤布拉格光栅FBG(Fiber Bragg Grating)动态应变采集与机翼模型三维重建系统.本文通过共享数据库的方式,在机翼模型与FBG传感网络数据直接建立连接,FBG传感器数据变化可实时在三维机翼模型中进行体现,由此实现了直观地对飞机机翼各监测点应变情况的实时监测.     

On the quasi-steady aerodynamics of normal hovering flight part I: the induced power factor

An analytical treatment to quantify the losses captured in the induced power factor, k, is provided for flapping wings in normal hover, including the effects of non-uniform downwash, tip losses and finite flapping amplitude. The method is based on a novel combination of actuator disc and lifting line blade theories that also takes into account the effect of advance ratio. The model has been evaluated against experimental results from the literature and qualitative agreement obtained for the effect of advance ratio on the lift coefficient of revolving wings. Comparison with quantitative experimental data for the circulation as a function of span for a fruitfly wing shows that the model is able to correctly predict the circulation shape of variation, including both the magnitude of the peak circulation and the rate of decay in circulation towards zero. An evaluation of the contributions to induced power factor in normal hover for eight insects is provided. It is also shown how Reynolds number can be accounted for in the induced power factor, and good agreement is obtained between predicted span efficiency as a function of Reynolds number and numerical results from the literature. Lastly, it is shown that for a flapping wing in hover k owing to the non-uniform downwash effect can be reduced to 1.02 using an arcsech chord distribution. For morphologically realistic wing shapes based on beta distributions, it is shown that a value of 1.07 can be achieved for a radius of first moment of wing area at 40% of wing length.     

Time-resolved vortex wake of a common swift flying over a range of flight speeds

The wake of a freely flying common swift (Apus apus L.) is examined in a wind tunnel at three different flight speeds, 5.7, 7.7 and 9.9 m s⁻¹. The wake of the bird is visualized using high-speed stereo digital particle image velocimetry (DPIV). Wake images are recorded in the transverse plane, perpendicular to the airflow. The wake of a swift has been studied previously using DPIV and recording wake images in the longitudinal plane, parallel to the airflow. The high-speed DPIV system allows for time-resolved wake sampling and the result shows features that were not discovered in the previous study, but there was approximately a 40 per cent vertical force deficit. As the earlier study also revealed, a pair of wingtip vortices are trailing behind the wingtips, but in addition, a pair of tail vortices and a pair of ‘wing root vortices’ are found that appear to originate from the wing/body junction. The existence of wing root vortices suggests that the two wings are not acting as a single wing, but are to some extent aerodynamically detached from each other. It is proposed that this is due to the body disrupting the lift distribution over the wing by generating less lift than the wings.     

机翼屏蔽对航空发动机噪声预测的影响分析

随着对飞机适航噪声的要求更加严格,利用机翼屏蔽效应对航空发动机进行噪声控制已成为一项有效策略与研究方向.基于惠更斯-菲涅尔原理,利用飞机噪声性能(Aircraft Noise and Performance,ANP)数据库计算飞机起飞航迹并在其上建立噪声源,声源位置作为噪声屏蔽计算坐标输入屏蔽效应算法,应用Matlab...     

Numerical Study of a Transonic Aircraft Wing for the Prediction of Flutter Failure

In the present paper, computational analysis has been carried out to assess the coupled fluid–structure interaction using NASTRAN finite element approach. A straight swept wing of aluminum material is studied at transonic zone. Analysis has been carried out to find the natural frequency by fluid–structure interaction, then adopting its natural frequency to calculate the reduced frequency for analyzing the flutter effectiveness. A typical case study of plate has been carried out for better understanding the flutter which was then adopted for the swept wing. A fluid–structure interaction phenomenon provides an additional energy to the moving object in terms of frequency in transonic zone. In this speed zone, the divergence speed results a drag that leads to the object to be in a stronger twisting mode resulting in catastrophic failure of the aircraft. The study has defined the flutter boundary of the wing in terms of velocity and frequency which will be very useful in preventing the flutter failure of the aircraft wing through appropriate design improvement or through restriction operational regime.     

Reliability analysis of composite wing subjected to gust loads

An aerospace vehicle in atmospheric flight can be exposed to random air turbulence which may cause critical structural failure. Especially, for high aspect ratio wing, the effect of gust becomes more significant and its response to random gust need to be analyzed precisely. In this paper, the reliability analysis is conducted for composite wing subject to gust loads. For this, the probability distribution function of bending moment from random gust is calculated by power spectral analysis and the material properties of composite skin are assumed to be normal random variables to consider uncertainty. With these distributions of random variables, the probability of failure of the wing structure is calculated by Monte Carlo simulation.     

Modeling the effects of prior exfoliation corrosion on fatigue life of aircraft wing skins

This paper presents a preliminary analytical model, which was developed to evaluate the effects of prior exfoliation corrosion on the residual fatigue life of wing skins. A literature review was completed on the effects of exfoliation corrosion and fatigue interaction and the most significant conclusions are presented in this paper. A number of coupons with fasteners were cut from naturally exfoliated upper wing skins fabricated from 7178-T6 alloy, and the maximum depth of exfoliation corrosion was determined using an ultrasonic inspection technique. These coupons were tested to failure using constant amplitude compression dominated loading and the fracture surfaces were examined to determine the cracking mechanisms. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model associated with a ‘soft inclusion’ technique was developed to determine the local stress/strain distribution around the exfoliated fastener hole. The model included the local geometry change due to material loss, the contact effects between the fastener and the wing skin as well as the predominately compressive loading. It was found that the local stress around the cracking sites did not increase significantly with the current levels of exfoliation. A life prediction was then carried out based on the 3D FE and soft inclusion model, and the prediction agreed reasonably with the test.     

复合材料机翼整体成型技术研究

对给定外型与尺寸的整体成型复合材料机翼进行了设计、 制备及力学性能实验研究。采用有限元分析软件, 对空心复合材料机翼进行静力学分析, 得到了承载效率与机翼几何尺寸的关系, 并确定了最优结构尺寸与复合材料纤维铺层厚度。采用石蜡芯模辅助气囊法成型技术, 制备了整体成型复合材料机翼, 并进行了三点弯曲实验测定, 分析了其破坏机制。三点弯曲实验研究发现, 整体成型复合材料机翼的破坏模式为上蒙皮的局部屈曲失效, 屈曲后仍有一定的承载能力。      

Coloration using higher order optical interference in the wing pattern of the Madagascan sunset moth

Colour patterns of animals' bodies are usually produced by the spatial distribution of pigments with different colours. However, some animals use the spatial variation of colour-producing microstructures. We have studied one distinctive example of such structurally produced colour patterns, the wing of the Madagascan sunset moth, to clarify the physical rules that underlie the colour variation. It is known that the iridescent wing scale of the sunset moth has the alternate air-cuticle multilayer structure that causes optical interference. The microscopic and optical investigations of various parts of the wing have confirmed that the thickness of the cuticle layers within the scale largely varies to produce the colour pattern. However, it varies in very different ways between the dorsal and ventral sides of the hind wing; the thickness gradually varies on the dorsal side from scale to scale, while the abrupt changes are found on the ventral side to form distinctive borders between differently coloured areas. It is also revealed that an unusual coloration mechanism is involved in the green part of the ventral hind wing: the colour is caused by higher order optical interference of the highly non-ideal multilayer structure. The physical mechanism of the colour pattern formation is briefly discussed with the several mathematical models proposed so far.     

What makes the difference between shock boundary-layer interaction on an airfoil and on a swept wing?

Summary Swept wing flows are characterized by the curvature of the streamlines in the projection to the wing plan and by the skewing of the velocity profile in the boundary layer. The aerodynamic performance of supercritical wings at transonic speeds is trongly influenced by the interaction between a weak shock front and a turbulent boundary layer. The characteristic elements of this interaction are the precompression, the post-shock expansion, and the shock diffusion. The differences between the interactive flow over an airfoil and over a swept wing are elaborated by the comparison between the two-dimensional case and the flow with superposed tangential velocity.     

Nonlinear effects in the interaction of periodic pulsed energy supply and shock-wave structure during transonic streamlining of wing profiles

We have evaluated the possibility of controlling the aerodynamic characteristics of wing profiles by means of a local periodic pulsed energy supply in transonic flight regimes. The influence of the energy supply rate and the position and area of the zone of energy supply on the flow structure near a symmetric wing profile and on the wave drag has been studied using a numerical solution of two-dimensional nonstationary equations of gasdynamics. The energy supply in front of the breakdown shock wave within extended zones in the immediate vicinity of the streamlined contour leads to a significant decrease in the wave drag of a given wing profile. The nature of this phenomenon is elucidated and it is established that there exists a limiting rate of energy supply.     

Effect of one-sided periodic pulsed energy supply on aerodynamic characteristics of wing profiles

The possibility of controlling the aerodynamic characteristics of wing profiles by means of local periodic pulsed energy supply in transonic flight regimes has been studied. A change in the flow structure near a symmetric wing profile was determined, depending on the amount of energy supplied from the lower side of the wing profile, using a numerical solution of two-dimensional nonstationary equations of gasdynamics. The results are compared to the data obtained from calculations of a transonic flow past the same profile at various incidence angles without energy supply.     

Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Flapping Actuator Mimicking Dragonflies

In this study, variational principle is used for dynamic modeling of an Ionic Polymer Metal Composite (IPMC) flapping wing. The IPMC is an Electro-active Polymer (EAP) which is emerging as a useful smart material for `artificial muscle' applications. Dynamic characteristics of IPMC flapping wings having the same size as the actual wings of three different dragonfly species Aeshna Multicolor, Anax Parthenope Julius and Sympetrum Frequens are analyzed using numerical simulations. An unsteady aerodynamic model is used to obtain the aerodynamic forces. A comparative study of the performances of three IPMC flapping wings is conducted. Among the three species, it is found that thrust force produced by the IPMC flapping wing of the same size as Anax Parthenope Julius wing is maximum. Lift force produced by the IPMC wing of the same size as Sympetrum Frequens wing is maximum and the wing is suitable for low speed flight. The numerical results in this paper show that dragonfly inspired IPMC flapping wings are a viable contender for insect scale flapping wing micro air vehicles.     

Wing tilt investigations on GaN epilayer grown on maskless grooved sapphire by MOCVD

GaN epilayer is grown on maskless periodically grooved sapphire by metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) in this article. Wing tilt is detected by high resolution X-ray rocking curve. Inhomogeneous deformations between the wing and mesa regions are found by atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterization. The stress distribution is investigated using finite-element simulations. Inhomogeneous stress distribution in the mesa and wing regions is shown, which is also confirmed by micro-Raman spectroscopy. The results show that the wing tilt in GaN layers grown on maskless periodically grooved sapphire mainly originates from the different deformations for mesa and wing region caused by inhomogeneous stress distribution.     

柔性扑翼气动性能的数值研究

国内外对扑翼飞行的气动特性进行了大量研究,这些研究大多基于简谐扑动的刚性翼,然而大量观察发现鸟或昆虫飞行时,翅膀存在明显的柔性变形,这种变形对其气动性能具有显著的影响。该文针对一简化的二维柔性扑翼模型,采用数值求解N-S方程并耦合扑翼柔性变形方程的计算方法,研究了扑翼柔性变形对其气动性能的影响。结果显示扑翼的柔性变形改变了扑翼周围的涡结构,从而影响扑翼的气动性能;适当的柔性变形能延迟前缘涡的脱落,从而有效地改善扑翼的推进效率,但同时减弱了扑翼在低雷诺数环境中产生高升力的尾迹捕捉机制。