Effect of rolling strain on microstructure and tensile properties of dual-phase Mg–8Li–3Al–2Zn–0.5Y alloy

This study was conducted to discuss the effect of rolling strain on microstructure and tensile properties of dual-phase Mg–8Li–3Al–2Zn–0.5Y (wt%) alloy, which was prepared by casting, and then homogenized and rolled at 200?°C. The rolling process was conducted with 10% reduction per pass and five different accumulated strains, varying from 10% to 70%. The results indicate that the as-cast and as-rolled Mg–8Li–3Al–2Zn–0.5Y alloys are composed of α-Mg, β-Li, AlLi and Al₂Y phases. After rolling process, anisotropic microstructure was observed. α-Mg phase got elongated in both rolling direction and transverse direction with the addition of rolling strain. Consequently, the strength of the alloy in both directions was notably improved whereas the elongation declined, mainly caused by strain hardening and dispersion strengthening. The tensile properties of the as-rolled alloys in the RD, no matter the YS, UTS or the elongation, are higher than those of the TD due to their larger deformation strain and significant anisotropy in the hcp α-Mg phase. In addition, the fracture and strengthening mechanism of the tested alloys were also investigated systematically.     

Influence of retrogression and reaging on fracture toughness of 7010 aluminium alloy

Abstract

Compact tension fracture toughness specimens of high strength aluminium alloy 7010 have been tested after the application of retrogression and reaging (RRA) heat treatments. Short transverse orientation specimens, 25 mm in thickness were cut from a large rectilinear open die forging. Two retrogression temperatures were investigated, 200 and 240 ° C, and the RRA treatments were applied to material in the solution treated and cold compressed (W52) condition. Varying the retrogression time and temperature strongly influences the fracture toughness and does so to a degree that is greater than would be expected from the change in tensile properties alone. The fracture toughness, tensile properties and work hardening characteristics of alloy 7010 are reported and their dependence on retrogression time and temperature is described.     

Anisotropy of low temperature superplasticity of fine grained magnesium alloy AZ31 processed by multidirectional forging

Abstract

Effect of texture anisotropy of Mg alloy AZ31, processed by multidirectional forging, on low temperature superplasticity was studied in tension at 423 and 473 K. Multidirectional forging was carried out up to large cumulative strain of 4·8 with changing loading direction from pass to pass under decreasing temperature conditions. When the basal plane in initial texture is inclined at ～45° against tensile direction, rotation of basal plane towards tensile direction takes place accompanying with basal slip and grain coarsening or refinement, leading to the highest elongation to failure of 320%. This suggests that superplastic deformation can be controlled by grain boundary sliding accompanied with grain size changes taking place due to continuous dynamic recrystallisation.     

Role of pre-vertical compression in deformation behavior of Mg alloy AZ31B during super-high reduction hot rolling process

Mg alloy AZ31B plates were processed by hot rolling with different thickness reductions per pass and pre-vertical compression followed by super-high reduction hot rolling (PVCR), respectively. Microstructure evolution, rolling formability variation and mechanical responses were investigated. As reduction per pass increased, the number of shear bands deflecting toward rolling direction increased, resulting in easy crack initiation in and around the bands. With increasing reduction per pass up to 80%, twinning and twinning-induced dynamic recrystallization (DRX) dominated the deformation of the edge material at 350?°C, resulting in local recrystallization with coarse grains and further largest edge-crack degree. Pre-induced {10$\overline{1}$2} tensile twins by pre-vertical compression (PVC) increased number density of nucleation sites for dynamic recrystallization during the subsequent severe rolling, which enhanced the dominant role of continuous dynamic recrystallization. Designed PVCR-b was proved to be a relatively effective method to improve rolling formability of rolled Mg alloy AZ31B plates. With this method, mean grain size of AZ31B plate was significantly refined from ～600?mm to ～14.1?mm and more homogeneous grain size distribution along transverse direction (TD) was achieved. In addition, basal texture intensity was greatly weakened. As a result, tensile anisotropy was distinctly decreased and fracture elongation increased dramatically.     

3104铝合金板材不同方向拉伸性能及断裂特征的研究

对3104铝合金冷轧板沿轧制方向0°、45°和90°三个方向进行拉伸性能测试,观察断口形貌和显微组织,并分析粗大第二相分布与拉伸方向之间的关系。结果表明,3104铝合金冷轧板材的断口为切变型韧窝断裂特征,裂纹在粗大相自身断裂分离处或者在粗大相尖端处萌生,并在剪切力作用下,以微孔聚合的方式扩展。0°方向拉伸断口韧窝深度最大,延伸率最大;90°方向拉伸断口韧窝深度最小,延伸率最小;而45°方向拉伸断口韧窝深度居中,延伸率也居中。粗大第二相长轴方向和拉伸方向之间的夹角越小,延伸率越大。     

加载路径对5A06铝合金力学性能和微观组织的影响

目的 通过力学性能测试和微观组织表征等手段研究预加载方向和双向加载对5A06铝合金组织性能的影响。方法 分别沿轧制方向(RD)和垂直于轧制方向(TD)施加预变形,然后沿RD进行拉伸试验,对比研究预加载方向对合金力学性能的影响。通过双向拉伸试验研究合金在双向加载时力学性能的变化情况;采用透射电镜观察预加载和双向加载条件下典型试样内的位错组态,分析加载路径对位错组态的影响。结果 预加载使5A06铝合金的屈服强度提高,伸长率下降。与RD预加载相比,TD预加载对屈服强度和伸长率的影响更小,TD预加载试样的抗拉强度更高。不同预加载方向下试样的位错组态不同:预加载与二次加载方向一致会使位错沿单一方向塞积;预加载与二次加载方向垂直时会出现平行位错列交错缠结现象。双向加载时,不同加载比例下合金的应力–应变关系不同,加载比例越接近等比例双向拉伸情况,加工硬化系数越大,在等比例双轴拉伸时达到最大。在应力状态从单拉状态变化到等双拉状态的过程中,不同阶段屈服点间隔不同,在等比例双轴拉伸时达到最大,在单向拉伸时最小。对于不同加载比例的试样,其位错密度随中心区应变量的增大而增大。结论 预加载方向会显著影响5A06铝合金的力学性能和位错组态。不同比例的双向加载会影响5A06铝合金的应力–应变关系。     

Influence of directionality on strength and impact behaviour of high strength steels

Abstract

The directionality of the strength and impact behaviour of control rolled 110 grade high strength steel has been examined. Tensile specimens tested along the rolling direction were found to give strengths of ～60 MPa lower than when tested transversely in the rolling direction. Charpy V notch impact samples, in contrast, gave lower impact transition temperatures when taken in the rolling direction (35°C lower). The difference in strength between the two directions is believed to be mainly as a result of the strong texture produced on control rolling. The difference in impact behaviour is due to the more severe fissuring on the fracture surface of the longitudinally tested specimens. Fissuring is more marked on the longitudinally tested sample because of the greater grain elongation in that direction, the initial fracture path being along the grain boundaries.     

Mechanical property of magnesium alloy sheet with hardening deterioration at warm temperatures and its application for failure analysis: Part II – failure analysis

The mechanical properties of a thin AZ31B Mg alloy sheet (with the thickness of 0.5 mm) were characterized for its anisotropy, temperature-dependent hardening (including its deterioration) and strain rate sensitivity based on simple tension test data measured at 100 °C, 150 °C, 200 °C, 250 °C, respectively, in Part I. As for anisotropy, simple tension tests were performed along three (rolling, transverse and in-between) directions to calibrate the Hill1948 yield function. As for temperature-dependent hardening, hardening as well as its deterioration (or softening) behavior observed beyond the uniform elongation limit was numerically characterized based on the inverse calibration method, in which strain rate sensitivity was also considered. The mechanical properties were confirmed to properly predict failure by strain localization for all the simple tension tests involved in the characterization procedure. Ultimately, the mechanical properties characterized in Part I were applied in Part II to analyze the failure by strain localization in the cross-shaped cup drawing tests developed as the benchmark problem for the NUMISHEET2011 conference [1]. The results showed that the mechanical properties with hardening deterioration properly predicted failure, while hardening without deterioration (obtained following the common practice) did not, confirming the importance of including the hardening deterioration in tensile property characterization, especially to predict forming failure by strain localization.     

Mechanical and microstructural characterizations of ultrafine grained Zircaloy-2 produced by room temperature rolling

The effect of deformation strain at room temperature on the microstructural and mechanical properties of Zircaloy-2 was investigated in the present work. The sample was initially heat treated at 800 °C in argon environment and quenched in mercury prior to rolling. The deformed alloys were characterized by using EBSD and TEM. It reveals the misorientation of incidental grain boundaries (IDBs) due to large plastic strain induced in the sample. The recovery of deformed alloy upon annealing leads to the formation of ultrafine and nanostructured grains in the alloy. The hardness achieved after 85% room temperature rolling (RTR) is found to be 269 HV, while the tensile strength is 679 MPa and 697 MPa in the rolling and transverse direction, respectively. The improvement in strength is due to generation of high dislocation density and ultrafine grains in the deformed alloy with 85% thickness reduction, during rolling. The deformed alloy subjected to annealing at 400 °C for 30 min sample shows increase in ductility (6% and 7.2%) in rolling and transverse direction, respectively, due to the annihilation of dislocations as evident from the TEM study.     

Mechanical property of magnesium alloy sheet with hardening deterioration at warm temperatures and its application for failure analysis: Part I - property characterization

The mechanical property of a thin AZ31B Mg alloy sheet (with the thickness of 0.5 mm) was characterized for its anisotropy, temperature-dependent hardening (including its deterioration) and strain rate sensitivity based on simple tension test data measured at 100 °C, 150 °C, 200 °C, 250 °C, respectively, in Part I. As for anisotropy, simple tension tests were performed along three (rolling, transverse and in-between) directions to calibrate the Hill1948 yield function. As for temperature-dependent hardening, the common practice is to characterize hardening only up to the uniform elongation limit and to extrapolate the data to cover the range beyond its limit. In this work, hardening as well as its deterioration (or softening) behavior observed beyond the uniform elongation limit was numerically characterized based on the inverse calibration method, in which strain rate sensitivity was also considered. The mechanical properties were confirmed to properly predict failure by strain localization for all the simple tension tests involved in the characterization procedure. Ultimately, the mechanical properties characterized in Part I were applied in Part II to analyze the failure by strain localization in the cross-shaped cup drawing tests developed as the benchmark problem for the NUMISHEET2011 conference [1].     

取样方向对含单边裂纹牛卡纸拉伸断裂行为的影响

目的 探究取样方向对含单边裂纹牛卡纸拉伸断裂行为的影响,以期提高牛卡纸为原料制作的包装盒等成品的强度。方法 首先在不同取样方向上制备含单边裂纹的牛卡纸试样,然后基于数字图像相关(Digital Image Correlation, DIC)方法,结合显微张力测试台测得不同取样方向与拉伸断裂载荷的关系图,分析不同取样方向下裂纹尖端微观应变场,最后结合电镜扫描测试进行对比分析。结果 结果表明,通常情况下,含单边裂纹的牛卡纸依然符合纸张纵向拉伸载荷大于横向拉伸载荷的规律,取样方向越靠近横向,裂尖区域应变值越大,发生断裂时的拉伸载荷越小。结论 牛卡纸取样方向和纤维与纤维的结合强度是影响牛卡纸拉伸断裂行为的重要因素。     

FATIGUE GROWTH OF PHYSICALLY SMALL INCLINED CRACKS

The growth of physically small, self initiated, inclined corner and through-the-width cracks is investigated in a carbon steel under tension fatigue (R= 0.05). A preliminary procedure involving crack initiation under far-field cyclic compression is used. This precracking method is adopted to minimize the effect of residual damage at the tip of the crack grown (and arrested) under cyclic compression. Thus, the subsequent tensile fatigue crack propagates through a region with no (or very small) residual stress or damage. Experiments indicate that the early growth rate of the inclined corner cracks is discontinuous with a few decelerations. During the intermittent propagation period the corner cracks only extend into the thickness (depth) of the specimen and do not propagate along the width direction. However, after reaching a certain aspect ratio, the inclined flaws grow in a steady (continuous) manner in both the thickness and width directions. Through-the-width cracks, both inclined and perpendicular to loading direction, do not show the discontinuous growth pattern typical of the inclined corner cracks, but exhibit only one minimum in the crack growth rate behaviour.     

The characterization of shape memory effect for low elastic modulus biomedical β-type titanium alloy

This work investigates the textures of biomedical TiNbTaZr alloy rolled by 99% cold reduction ratios in thickness. The relationship between textures and superelasticity of the specimens treated at 873 K and 1223 K for 1.2 ks is studied. The microstructure of tensile specimen is investigated by transmission electron microscopy. Textures of cold-rolled and heat-treated specimens are studied. During unloading, the anisotropy of superelastic strain and pure elastic strain in the heat-treated specimens is observed. Superelastic strain along rolling direction and transverse direction is larger than those along 45° from rolling direction while pure elastic strain shows the highest value along 45° from rolling direction in the specimen treated at 873 K. For the specimen treated at 1223 K, higher pure elastic strain is obtained along rolling direction. The maximum recovered strain around 2.11% is obtained along rolling direction.     

Low‐cycle fatigue behavior of rolled WE43‐T5 magnesium alloy

This paper describes the main results from an investigation into the strength and low‐cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of a rolled plate of WE43 Mg alloy in its T5 condition at room temperature. The alloy was found to exhibit small tension/compression yield asymmetry and small anisotropy being stronger in transverse direction (TD) than in rolling direction (RD) along with some anisotropy in strain hardening. The LCF tests were conducted under strain‐controlled conditions with the strain amplitudes ranging from 0.6% to 1.4% without the mean strain component. While the stress amplitudes during the LCF were higher for tests along TD than RD, the LCF life was similar for both directions. As revealed by electron microscopy, the fractured surfaces under tension consisted mainly of microvoid coalescence with some transgranular facets, while those fractured in LCF showed a combination of intergranular fracture and transgranular facets with minor content of microvoid coalescence.     

Quasi-brittle fracture during structural impact of AA7075-T651 aluminium plates

The stress–strain behaviour of the aluminium alloy 7075 in T651 temper is characterized by tension and compression tests. The material was delivered as rolled plates of thickness 20 mm. Quasi-static tension tests are carried out in three in-plane directions to characterize the plastic anisotropy of the material, while the quasi-static compression tests are done in the through-thickness direction. Dynamic tensile tests are performed in a split Hopkinson tension bar to evaluate the strain-rate sensitivity of the material. Notched tensile tests are conducted to study the influence of stress triaxiality on the ductility of the material. Based on the material tests, a thermoelastic–thermoviscoplastic constitutive model and a ductile fracture criterion are determined for AA7075-T651. Plate impact tests using 20 mm diameter, 197 g mass hardened steel projectiles with blunt and ogival nose shapes are carried out in a compressed gas-gun to reveal the alloy's resistance to ballistic impact, and both the ballistic limit velocities and the initial versus residual velocity curves are obtained. It is found that the alloy is rather brittle during impact, and severe fragmentation and delamination of the target in the impact zone are detected. All impact tests are analysed using the explicit solver of the non-linear finite element code LS-DYNA. Simulations are run with both axisymmetric and solid elements. The failure modes are seen to be reasonably well captured in the simulations, while some deviations occur between the numerical and experimental ballistic limit velocities. The latter is ascribed to the observed fragmentation and delamination of the target which are difficult to model accurately in the finite element simulations.     

The fracture of ausformed steels

The influence of ausforming on the methods of tensile and impact fracture in a low alloy steel, has been studied.The ausforming produced austenite grains elongated parallel to the rolling direction and on subsequent quenching and tempering between 400 and 600° C, extensive networks of cementite particles formed along their boundaries. In this condition tensile failure occurred by the formation of longitudinal cracks along the prior austenite boundaries and these cracks joined together by transverse ductile tearing. On tempering above 600° C the boundary carbides coalesced and the matrix softened, and in this condition the steel possessed considerable resistance to transverse crack propagation.     

In situ tensile of ultra-narrow gap laser welded joint of bainitic steel

ABSTRACT

Ultra-narrow gap laser welding (ultra-NGLW) is an advanced welding technology for thick bainite steel with a welding gap of only 4?mm. We studied the failure mechanism of the tensile fracture of ultra-NGLW joints of bainitic steel via in situ tensile tests. The tests show that cracks for all micro-zone specimens propagated along the tensile direction at 42°～45°. Further analysis of the crack tips by Electron Back Scatter Diffraction showed main cracks along directions with high Schmid Factors (SF >0.44), and micro-cracks were found on the grain boundaries of (111) and (101) grains. It was revealed that the wire-filling zone and heat-affected zone were mainly intergranular expansion, whereas in the no filling zone, the crack propagation was transgranular.     

Effect of aging on work hardening behaviour of cold rolled Nimonic C-263 alloy

Abstract

Experimental true stress–true strain data of Nimonic C-263 alloy in solution treated as well as aged condition have been analysed using different flow relationships. Ludwigson relationship provides the best fit of the data for all the conditions investigated. The transition in macroscopic flow behaviour of the alloy with plastic strain, in solution treated condition, can be correlated with the transition in deformation mode from low strain regime to high strain regime. Although aging does not appear to alter the macroscopic flow behaviour, it causes a considerable change in flow parameters of the Ludwigson relationship and substructural evolution. On the other hand, the effect of sheet thickness is marginal. The flow data of the aged alloys fitted according to Ludwigson model not only yield a unique set of flow parameters for each aging condition but also exhibit a systematic trend with aging time. The transition in macroscopic flow behaviour of the alloy with strain, in aged conditions, can be correlated with a change in dislocation mechanism from dislocation–precipitate interaction at lower strains to dislocation–dislocation interaction at higher strains leading to formation of a dense dislocation tangled networks in the matrix regions surrounding the precipitates. The alloy in both solution treated and aged conditions exhibits three fairly distinct stages of strain hardening. The strain hardening rate decreases in regime I, remains constant in regime II and begins to fall again in regime III. Furthermore, it is observed that the alloy specimen with longitudinal orientation (L, i.e. parallel to rolling direction), exhibits marginally highest strain hardening rates, while specimens with long transverse orientation exhibit lowest strain hardening rates both in solution treated and aged conditions. However, for all other in-plane orientations (i.e. L+30°, L+45° and L+60°), the strain hardening rate data are fairly very close and lie in between those of longitudinal and long transverse orientations.     

Multiple transverse fracture in 90° cross-ply laminates of a glass fibre-reinforced polyester

Specimens of a 90° cross-ply glass-reinforced polyester were tested in tension in a direction parallel to one of the directions of reinforcement. Extensive cracking of the transverse ply occurred at strains much lower than the resin failure strain. These cracks formed in a direction parallel to the transverse reinforcement and showed a remarkably even crack spacing. Results of crack spacing measurements are presented against applied stress for specimens with differing transverse-ply thicknesses. The transverse-crack spacing was found to decrease with increasing applied stress and to increase with increasing transverseply thickness. There was no evidence of debonding between the plies during cracking and a multiple cracking theory in which the plies remain elastically bonded has been presented which can account for the results.     

An investigation of microstructure, hardness, tensile behaviour of a titanium alloy: Role of orientation

In this technical paper, the microstructure, hardness, tensile deformation and final fracture behaviour of an emerging titanium alloy for performancecritical applications are presented and discussed. Both longitudinal and transverse test specimens were prepared from the as-provided sheet stock of the alloy and deformed in uniaxial tension. The yield strength and tensile strength of the alloy sheet in the transverse orientation was higher than the longitudinal orientation. The ductility of the test specimens, quantified in terms of reduction-in-cross-sectional area, was higher for the transverse specimen when compared to the longitudinal counterpart. The elongation-to-failure of the test specimens was identical in the two orientations of the sheet stock. The tensile fracture behaviour of the alloy was quantified by careful examination of the fracture surfaces in a scanning electron microscope. The intrinsic fracture features on the tensile fracture surface were discussed taking into consideration the nature of loading and contribution from intrinsic microstructural features.