Numerical Study on Plasma Jet and Particle Behavior in Multi-arc Plasma Spraying

Plasma jet and particle behavior in conventional single-arc plasma spraying has been subject to intensive numerical research. However, multi-arc plasma spraying is a different case which has yet to be investigated more closely. Numerical models developed to investigate the characteristics of multi-arc plasma spraying (plasma generator, plasma jet, and plasma–particle interaction models) were introduced in previous publications by the authors. The plasma generator and plasma jet models were already validated by comparing calculated plasma temperatures with results of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. In this study, the above-mentioned models were subjected to further validation effort. Calculated particle in-flight characteristics were compared with those determined by means of particle diagnostics and high-speed videography. The results show very good agreement. The main aim of the current publication is to derive conclusions regarding the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle in-flight behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying. For this purpose, a numerical parameter study is conducted in which the validated models are used to allow variations in the process parameters. Results regarding plasma jet/particle in-flight temperatures and velocities are presented. Furthermore, the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying are discussed and explained. This contributes to better understanding of the multi-arc plasma spraying process, in particular regarding the injection behavior of particles into hot regions of the plasma jet. Finally, an example test case showing a possible practical application area of the models is introduced.     

Modelling the Plasma Jet in Multi-Arc Plasma Spraying

Particle in-flight characteristics in atmospheric plasma spraying process are determined by impulse and heat energy transferred between the plasma jet and injected powder particles. One of the important factors for the quality of the plasma-sprayed coatings is thus the distribution of plasma gas temperatures and velocities in plasma jet. Plasma jets generated by conventional single-arc plasma spraying systems and their interaction with powder particles were subject matter of intensive research. However, this does not apply to plasma jets generated by means of multi-arc plasma spraying systems yet. In this study, a numerical model has been developed which is designated to dealing with the flow characteristics of the plasma jet generated by means of a three-cathode spraying system. The upstream flow conditions, which were calculated using a priori conducted plasma generator simulations, have been coupled to the plasma jet simulations. The significances of the relevant numerical assumptions and aspects of the models are analyzed. The focus is placed on to the turbulence and diffusion/demixing modelling. A critical evaluation of the prediction power of the models is conducted by comparing the numerical results to the experimental results determined by means of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. It is evident that the numerical models exhibit a good accuracy for their intended use.     

气体放电热源喷涂技术的数值模拟研究现状∗

热喷涂技术是表面工程领域中极为重要的一种装备强化修复技术，其中以气体放电形式为热源的喷涂技术包括等离子喷涂和电弧喷涂，两者更是占据热喷涂领域的绝大市场份额，采用数值模拟可以解决一些在试验上较为棘手的重点研究问题， 如等离子体流场和熔滴传热传质行为等，以期实现工艺参数的准确调控和优异涂层的制备。研究电弧及等离子喷涂模拟的模型差异化问题及流场速度、温度、电磁性质，归纳相关模拟的发展历程，并调查试验与模拟的吻合程度。结果表明：电弧喷涂中丝材原料会使阴阳极产生温度差，水平速度分布较发散，熔滴模型也多未考虑熔滴群间相互作用；等离子喷涂研究中常用的三维瞬态双温模型已十分贴近实际工况，对熔滴飞行中的加热、加速过程及破碎行为的研究已较为完备，但仍存在湍流模型计算精度不够、对鞘层弧柱区的研究不够深入等问题。后续应重点在电弧喷涂多液滴模型、等离子体电磁作用和等离子丝材喷涂工艺的数值模拟等方面进行深入研究。     

等离子喷涂陶瓷螺杆的软仿型工艺的研究

提出以软仿型加工方法实现陶瓷螺杆等离子喷涂,该方法以螺杆螺距为仿型参数,实现数控位移,以软仿型方式实现螺杆表面喷涂.探讨了该方法的工艺原理和实现技术途径,研究结果表明采用该方法有助于提高陶瓷螺杆的喷涂效率.     

Experiments and modeling of rapid solidification of plasma-sprayed yttria-stabilized zirconia

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are widely used to increase the working temperature and improve the high-temperature corrosion resistance of base materials. Thermal spraying methods such as air plasma spraying (APS) are convenient techniques to deposit TBCs. This work examines the rapid solidification of APS-deposited yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), by modeling the non-equilibrium solidification of a single molten particle. The model solves the so-called hyperbolic equations for heat and mass transfer to predict interface undercooling and velocity as a function of time, and also predicts the morphology of the solidification front (and thus the microstructural characteristics of rapidly solidified YSZ) as a function of interface velocity. Results are presented of a single particle solidifying onto a steel substrate, and onto a previously deposited particle. The numerical results are also compared to experimental data of the microstructure of a YSZ splat deposited by APS, to validate the model.     

Comparison of plasma-sprayed coatings produced in argon or nitrogen atmosphere

When spraying is conducted at ambient atmosphere, the entrainment of air cools the plasma jet and affects its expansion. It can also cause oxidation or chemical decomposition of the sprayed materials. Inert plasma spraying (IPS), generally conducted in an argon atmosphere, prevents these phenomena. However, the main drawbacks of IPS in comparison with air plasma spraying are the capital and operating costs. This paper presents a study in which nitrogen is used as a substitute for conventional argon atmosphere, thus reducing costs by 25 to 30%. Titanium carbide and niobium powders were sprayed in both argon and nitrogen atmospheres. Cryogenic cooling of the substrate was used during the spray process. This helps to maintain a low temperature in the chamber, produce thick coatings, and allows the use of substrate materials that are sensitive to heat. The velocity, temperature, and composition fields of the argon-hydrogen plasma jet flowing in argon or nitrogen at atmospheric pressure are compared from numerical simulation. The adhesion, roughness, and microstructure of the niobium and TiC coatings produced in both atmospheres are discussed as well as their nitrogen content.     

热喷涂技术的新发展

在过去的几年里，热喷涂技术在喷涂工艺、喷涂材料、涂层质量监控等方面都有很大发展，喷涂层应用领域也进一部扩大。其主要标志为新三阴极等离子喷涂系统、微等离子喷涂工艺、冷喷工艺的开发和应用，高速火焰喷涂工艺的进一步改进和完善，亚微米及纳米结构等新型喷涂材料的开发，喷涂粒子和基体诊断分析系统的开发和应用以及喷涂层在汽车发动机上的应用。     

苛刻环境下材料表面防护技术的研究进展

近年来,材料表面防护技术已由普通环境下的材料保护技术向苛刻环境下的特种防护技术发展,主要包括高速、高温、高压、重载环境下的长寿命润滑与强化技术,严酷海洋大气、深海环境、辐射环境下的腐蚀与防护技术,以及面向重大装备的维修与再制造技术等。这些技术的发展促进了磁控溅射、多弧离子镀、冷喷涂、热喷涂、智能防腐涂层等多项新技术的发展,并在航空、航天、船舶、兵器、核电等多个重点行业中得到应用。文中对近年来苛刻环境下材料表面防护技术的发展现状和趋势进行了研究,以我国重大工程装备为出发点,重点对材料的腐蚀与防护、减摩与润滑、耐磨与强化以及维修与再制造4个领域技术的新成果、新观点、新方法和新技术进行了综述,为相关的研究工作提供技术参考。     

Analysis of the unsteadiness of a plasma jet and the related turbulence

Plasma spraying using liquid feedstock allows realizing thin coatings (< 100 μm). In this process, the plasma jet fluctuations play an important role in the behavior of the liquid fragmentation and then in the final deposit characteristics. In this study, numerical simulations of two different plasma jets (argon or argon hydrogen mixture) issuing into air are investigated. The computations are based on a compressible model and a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) modeling for the turbulence. The aim of this work is to analyze the unsteady effects of the plasma jet regarding those of turbulence. In particular, the characterization of the turbulent zone inside the plasma jet is provided. A turbulence analysis is carried out in order to estimate the levels of turbulence and modeling effects.     

Development of electrically conductive plasma sprayed coatings on glass ceramic substrates

The production of functional coatings on glass or glass ceramic substrates is of outstanding interest in modern product development due to the specific thermophysical properties of glasses, like low or even negative CTE, low heat conductivity and high dimensional stability. Atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) is an adequate technology for the deposition of a wide variety of materials on glasses and opens new application fields for thermal spraying technology in engineering and consumer industries.Metals are the frequent solution to produce electrically conductive layers in thermal spraying operations. Concerning applications with glass ceramic as a substrate, an intermediate oxide ceramic coating is applied before depositing the metallic layer, so that the distribution of residual stresses in the composite caused during and after the deposition process due to the mismatch in the materials thermophysical properties is minimized. However, the electrical properties required for the developed coatings presented in this paper can be fulfilled using other spraying materials, like mixed phases of oxide ceramics and metal powders, or pure ceramic materials. In this way, mono-layer electrically conductive systems which ensure the required stability and adhesion of the coating can be developed, reducing as well production time and costs.In the proposed approach, the three systems, metal oxide layer-composites, ceramic-metal mixed layers and ceramic mono-layers as conductive coatings on glass ceramics were thermally sprayed with APS. The coatings were characterized in terms of residual stress distribution and electrical conductivity. The influence of the process parameters on the coating electrical and mechanical properties was analyzed using the design of experiments (DOE) methodology.     

RF induction plasma spraying: State-of-the-art review

Radio frequency (RF) induction plasma technology has gained wide acceptance for the preparation of plasma spray coatings and structural free-standing parts of metals, ceramics, and metal-matrix composites. Its principal advantages are the relatively large volume and low velocity of the discharge, which coupled with the ease of axial injection of the powder into the plasma allows for the melting of relatively large particles at high throughput. The absence of electrodes offers the added advantage of ease of operation under a wide range of conditions at atmospheric and low pressure, with an inert, reducing, or oxidizing atmosphere. Highlights of recent advances in induction plasma melting and deposition of materials are presented in this article. The first section deals with advances in induction plasma spraying technology including system and torch design. This is followed by a brief overview of mathematical modeling and diagnostic studies of the induction plasma deposition process. Examples of applications of induction plasma spraying for the preparation of protective coatings and fiber-reinforced metal matrix composites are presented in the final section.     

Bonding mechanism in cold gas spraying

Cold gas spraying is a relatively new coating process by which coatings can be produced without significant heating of the sprayed powder. In contrast to the well-known thermal spray processes such as flame, arc, and plasma spraying, in cold spraying there is no melting of particles prior to impact on the substrate. The adhesion of particles in this process is due solely to their kinetic energy upon impact. Experimental investigations show that successful bonding is achieved only above a critical particle velocity, whose value depends on the temperature and the thermomechanical properties of the sprayed material. This paper supplies a hypothesis for the bonding of particles in cold gas spraying, by making use of numerical modelling of the deformation during particle impact. The results of modelling are assessed with respect to the experimentally evaluated critical velocities, impact morphologies and strengths of coatings. The analysis demonstrates that bonding can be attributed to adiabatic shear instabilities which occur at the particle surface at or beyond the critical velocity. On the basis of this criterion, critical velocities can be predicted and used to optimise process parameters for various materials.     

Ceramic Top Coats of Plasma-Sprayed Thermal Barrier Coatings: Materials,Processes, and Properties

The ceramic top coat has a major influence on the performance of the thermal barrier coating systems (TBCs). Yttria-partially-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is the top coat material frequently used, and the major deposition processes of the YSZ top coat are atmospheric plasma spraying and electron beam physical vapor deposition. Recently, also new thermal spray processes such as suspension plasma spraying or plasma spray-physical vapor deposition have been intensively investigated for TBC top coat deposition. These new processes and particularly the different coating microstructures that can be deposited with them will be reviewed in this article. Furthermore, the properties and the intrinsic–extrinsic degradation mechanisms of the YSZ will be discussed. Following the TBC deposition processes and standard YSZ material, alternative ceramic materials such as perovskites and hexaaluminates will be summarized, while properties of pyrochlores with regard to their crystal structure will be discussed more in detail. The merits of the pyrochlores such as good CMAS resistance as well as their weaknesses, e.g., low fracture toughness, processability issues, will be outlined.     

Plasma spraying of Wc-Co part II: Experimental study of particle deposition and coating microstructure

WC-Co base wear-resistant coatings deposited by plasma spraying are widely used to enhance component longevity in a variety of wear environments. During spraying of WC-Co, ideally only the cobalt phase should melt and act as a binder for the WC particles. Although it is undesirable to fully melt WC because it can cause decarburization, complete melting of the cobalt phase and its satisfactory flattening on impacting the substrate is necessary to minimize porosity and achieve good substrate/coating adhesion. In this article, the influence of the primary plasma spray variables on the melting characteristics of WC-Co powders is investigated with respect to the microstructure of these coatings. This experimental work complements an analytical study on plasma spraying of WC-Co, and thus, observations are presented to support the predictions of the modeling effort.     

低压等离子喷涂技术在功能性涂层的应用进展

与常规等离子喷涂相比,低压等离子喷涂技术在真空或低压下进行等离子喷涂,可制备更低杂质、更高致密度、更高结合强度的涂层。介绍了常规等离子喷涂焰流速度高、工艺稳定性好、沉积效率高、可控性好的特点,详细阐述了低压等离子喷涂技术清洁、高速、长焰流、预热、电清理的工艺优势,说明了低压等离子喷涂技术在热障涂层、抗气蚀涂层、面向等离子体材料等功能性涂层制备上的应用,最后从完善相关理论、与其他技术联用、工艺在线可控、气氛压力更低等方面,以及在航空、航天、电子等领域的运用,对低压等离子喷涂技术的发展进行了展望。     

Simulation of PYSZ particle impact and solidification in atmospheric plasma spraying coating process

In this work a numerical model of the impact and solidification of partially yttria stabilized zirconia particles on flat and rough substrate surfaces under plasma spraying conditions and the simulation results are presented. Results of the numerical simulation showed the influence of particle diameter and particle state prior to impact on splats spreading behavior and final morphology. The particles have a diameter range from 20 µm to 60 µm. Particle initial conditions prior to impact: speed, temperature and melting state are taken from previous simulation approaches of particle acceleration and heating. Simulations of fluid dynamics, heat transfer and solidification during the particle impact were performed using computational fluid dynamics. Tracing of free surfaces was determined by the volume of fluid method. The simulation results are compared with several numerical and experimental studies of other scientists and showed good agreement. Simulated splat morphologies are compared with experimentally obtained splats. The numerical model shows good results under real coating conditions and is suitable for the implementation in industrial applications. This model builds a basis for calculation of microstructure during real coating processes and can be used not only for coating under atmospheric plasma spraying conditions but also for similar coating processes and diverse materials.     

等离子喷涂制备吸波涂层及等离子渗碳技术研究现状

随着雷达探测技术的发展，对装备的隐身性能也提出越来越严苛的要求，隐身技术可显著提高军事装备及军人的生存能力，提升战斗效率，取得更大的战场控制权。传统吸波涂层的制备方法工艺复杂且效率低下，作为一种热喷涂技术，由于等离子喷涂具有工艺简单、适用范围广、可操控性和可调控性高等优点，在制备吸波涂层中得到广泛应用。材料表面状态对其性能有着重要的影响，等离子渗碳同样作为一种表面处理工艺，对提高材料表面强度、耐磨性等具有重要作用。介绍了等离子喷涂的基本原理以及送粉速率、输出功率、喷涂距离、喷涂速度等涂层制备基本工艺参数对涂层的影响。研究表明，送粉速率相同时，喷涂功率过大或过小均会导致涂层质量下降；喷涂距离过小会导致涂层与基体的结合力降低，而距离过大又会降低喷涂效率和涂层密度，合理调控等离子喷涂的工艺参数对涂层质量的好坏有着直接且重要的影响。总结了近年来等离子喷涂制备吸波涂层方面的研究成果，介绍了传统渗碳热处理技术与新型渗碳热处理技术的发展，概述了等离子渗碳的发展和现状，可知加工时间及加热温度对渗碳层的性能产生了较大影响。对以上两种表面改性技术未来的研究发展进行了展望， 为航空航天、军事装备等涉及关键零部件表面改性方面提供一定的参考价值。