The shrinkage properties of red pine wood assessed by image analysis and near-infrared spectroscopy

This work focused on the shrinkage and drying stress of red pine (Pinus densiflora) wood during kiln drying and investigated transverse shrinkage and moisture changes in thin specimens using digital image analysis and near-infrared spectroscopy, respectively. The effect of specimen thickness, which ranged from 1 to 10?mm on shrinkage, was analyzed under drying conditions with restrained stresses. The shrinkage due to moisture content was presented in the form of an exponential function and a linear function above and below the fiber saturation point, respectively. A shorter existence of the moisture gradient increased the transverse shrinkage. The tangential and radial shrinkage at the tissue level in 30-µm (longitudinal) thick slices was measured and compared with the shrinkage of above specimens with difference thicknesses. The transverse shrinkage of 1-mm-thick specimen is similar to the shrinkage measured using 30-µm-thick slice.     

Triaxial mechanical behaviour of mortar: Effects of drying

The analysis of concrete structure durability is based on the investigation of the material long-term behaviour. Such behaviour is influenced by mechanical, hydrous and thermal actions applied to structures. The main purpose of this study concerns the characterisation of the coupled effects between drying shrinkage and damage for a cementitious material. An experimental study on a normalised mortar (European norm) is then presented to characterise the damage effect, induced by drying and desiccation shrinkage on the multiaxial compressive behaviour. Triaxial compression tests are carried out at different times of drying. The observed increase in deviatoric strength and decrease of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are related to the loss in mass of specimens. These results are commented through the damage processes of material because the drying phenomenon causes microcracking by exceeding tensile strength. This microcracking will have a strong influence on the damage process of the material and then on its failure behaviour. Furthermore, the effect of drying leads to an increase of the capillary suction into the mortar, hence, to an increase of the specimen strength. Such couplings have to be taken into account in a reliable modelling.     

Effect of cracking in drying and shrinkage specimens

The significance of cracking and microcracking caused by nonuniform drying shrinkage of test specimens is analyzed. To assure that no cracks are produced by drying in load-free specimens, one must lower the environmental humidity gradually and sufficiently slowly, and use very thin specimens (about 1 mm thick). Graphs for the maximum admissible rate of change of environmental humidity, calculated from both linear and nonlinear diffusion theories, are provided. The spacing and width of parallel cracks due to drying are estimated from fracture mechanics considerations. In normal size specimens the drying cracks are usually too narrow to be visible. Drying leads to discontinuous microcracking rather than continuous macrocracks and is represented better as strain softening than as an abrupt stress drop. Shrinkage cracking can increase drying diffusivity by several orders of magnitude.     

SHRINKAGE OF APPLE DISKS DURING DRYING BY WARM AIR CONVECTION AND FREEZE DRYING

ABSTRACT

Volumetric and thickness shrinkage evaluated by direct measurement and n-heptane displacement were determined during convective and freeze drying of Golden delicious apples. For convective drying, the influence of blanching and diameter/thickness ratio of the apple disks used were analysed at different levels of moisture content under constant conditions. It was found that shrinkage of dried samples, both by convection and by freeze-drying, is anisotropic to a level which depends on sample geometry (ratio diameter/thickness) used. Blanching did not affect shrinkage results.

Based on results obtained a new model to predict bulk density of materials during drying is proposed, showing a better fit to experimental data than previous models reported in the literature. This model was further used to predict changes in apple porosity during drying.     

A numerical and experimental study of aggregate-induced shrinkage cracking in cementitious composites

Aggregates in cementitious composites subject to drying lead to mechanical restraint of the matrix shrinkage, which under certain conditions may lead to internal microcracking. In the present work this phenomenon is investigated using a two-dimensional (2D) numerical model and an approximate 2D experimental approach. Experimental and simulated samples with simplified and matching spatial aggregate distributions were produced to make a quantitative comparison between experiments and model predictions. In particular, the effects of aggregate size and volume fraction on the degree of internal microcracking are assessed. The main challenges of performing a quantitative comparison are highlighted and discussed. These are related to: (i) the difficulty of designing experiments without moisture gradient effects; (ii) the experimental crack detection limit; and (iii) the role of the creep response of the matrix phase in the model. The results suggest the existence of a critical aggregate size below which aggregate-restraint does not cause detectable microcracking.     

How to study drying shrinkage microcracking in cement-based materials using optical and scanning electron microscopy?

Three different ‘destructive’ microscopy methods were tested on their ability to show drying shrinkage microcracks on a specimen cross-section. The first two were methods in which the microcracks were impregnated with a fluorescent epoxy and examined with fluorescence microscopy. In one method, the impregnation was applied before making the cross-section and in the other after making the cross-section. In the third method, the sample was kept wet constantly and examined in an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). It was concluded that the method in which the dried specimen was impregnated before making the cross-section was the most reliable method to record drying shrinkage microcracks. With this method, it was possible to impregnate the complete drying shrinkage microcrack pattern in the studied cement-based materials from the surface, and there was no risk of recording microcracks introduced by sample preparation.     

Shrinkage cracking in Roman cement pastes and mortars

Roman cements were key materials used in the architecture of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Fine cracks, caused by restrained shrinkage during drying, are a distinct characteristic of all Roman cement stuccoes. Today, cracking has become an important barrier preventing broader acceptance of Roman cement as a material by the restoration and construction sector. Drying shrinkage and tensile properties of Roman cement pastes and mortars submitted to various curing and drying regimes were determined as key parameters controlling cracking. A higher volume of aggregate in the mortar mix and a moderate curing time produce optimum Roman cement mortars from the standpoint of reducing the risk of cracking. Fast drying produced significant microcracking due to moisture gradients and differential shrinkage across the specimens. Stress relaxation observed during the long-time loading of the materials reduced their vulnerability to cracking.     

SHRINKAGE OF APPLE DISKS DURING DRYING BY WARM AIR CONVECTION AND FREEZE DRYING

Volumetric and thickness shrinkage evaluated by direct measurement and n-heptane displacement were determined during convective and freeze drying of Golden delicious apples. For convective drying, the influence of blanching and diameter/thickness ratio of the apple disks used were analysed at different levels of moisture content under constant conditions. It was found that shrinkage of dried samples, both by convection and by freeze-drying, is anisotropic to a level which depends on sample geometry (ratio diameter/thickness) used. Blanching did not affect shrinkage results.

Based on results obtained a new model to predict bulk density of materials during drying is proposed, showing a better fit to experimental data than previous models reported in the literature. This model was further used to predict changes in apple porosity during drying.     

Mechanosorptive Creep of Hemlock under Conventional Drying: I. The Determination of Free Shrinkage Strain

The dynamic free shrinkage behavior of Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) was investigated in order to provide the theoretical basis for the determination of drying mechanosoptive creep mechanism. Small specimens taken from five distinct positions within a log were dried at three constant temperatures (40, 60, and 80°C) and stepwise decreasing relative humidity conditions and their free shrinkage strain S in the tangential and radial directions was determined. The anisotropic shrinkage ratios G were also calculated and analyzed as functions of moisture content and temperature. The influential mechanism of the drying temperature, moisture range, and specimen position on the free shrinkage behavior was revealed. Two different function types were chosen to simulate the relationship between the free shrinkage strain and its variables (temperature, moisture, wood positions) for the specified moisture ranges.     

周边约束状态下板式混凝土早期开裂及收缩应变的分布

改进型的板式试件法可用于实验室或施工现场快速测试混凝土的早期抗裂性能。大量实验的统计结果表明这种板式混凝土的早期收缩裂缝的分布主要集中在两个区域：每边中点处相连形成的“十”字形区域和4个边角区域附近。通过埋置光纤光栅传感器法对这种混凝土板在早期处于风吹加速干燥条件下内部收缩应变的分布进行测量,结果表明：混凝土收缩应变与离干燥表面的距离成指数函数关系;在距离模具边框越近的位置,混凝土表现出的收缩应变值越小。     

Integrative Study on the Effect of Internal Curing on Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage of High-Strength Concrete

High-strength concrete generally has a low water-to-cement ratio, which in turn increases the possibility of early-age cracking due to its high autogenous shrinkage. In this article, the effect of internal curing using presoaked lightweight aggregate (PSLWA) in high-strength concrete on shrinkage and interior humidity is investigated by continuously measuring the deformation and interior humidity of the test specimen under plastic film sealing and surface drying conditions since specimen cast. Four mixture proportions with an induced curing water-to-cement ratio (W _IC/C) of 0, 0.04, 0.08, and 0.12 were used in experiments. The experimental results show that the decrease in interior humidity was gradually reduced with an increase in W _IC/C. Accordingly, both autogenous and drying shrinkage of concrete gradually decreased with an increase in W _IC/C. Internal curing cannot completely eliminate autogenous shrinkage because part of the autogenous shrinkage is developed within the humidity-saturated stage in early-age concrete.     

Some factors affecting delayed ettringite formation in heat-cured mortars

Although more than 10 years of studies on delayed ettringite formation (DEF) have led to consensus in numerous areas of past disagreements, some questions remain experimental work is needed to complete the knowledge of this pathology. Following this objective, this paper studies the influence of pre-existing microcracking, wetting/drying cycles and the type of sulfated addition on DEF in steam cured mortars. The mortar specimens were prepared using an Ordinary Portland Cement and two types of sulfate were added to the mixtures: calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) or sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄). The results confirm the well-known effect of temperature: no expansion was observed in any of the mixtures cured at room temperature. Moreover, no expansion was observed after 800 days for the reference mortar or for the mortar containing calcium sulfate but all the specimens of heat-cured mortars containing sodium sulfate expanded markedly after about 50 days whatever the supplementary treatments applied (thermal shrinkage or wetting/drying cycles). These results show the significant role played by alkalis in the occurrence of delayed ettringite. The supplementary treatments intended to cause prelimiray microcracking of the specimens did not promote expansion but contributed to a slight acceleration of the reaction. The ultimate values of expansion were similar to those obtained with sound mortars.     

Total deformation of loaded drying concrete

Usually the total time-dependent deformation of a loaded drying concrete specimen is subdivided into two components, these two being creep and shrinkage. But it turns out that the sum of both, pure creep and pure shrinkage, is always less than the deformation under load and simultaneous drying. Until now the question remains whether there does exist a special mechanism of drying creep or load induced shrinkage. Creep under sealed conditions can be analytically expressed by means of rate theory. It is shown here that tensile stresses in the drying outer shell usually overcome tensile strength of concrete. Thus crack formation takes place and the internal stress is redistributed. Theoretical predictions are compared with experimental results. It may be concluded that creep and shrinkage of a loaded drying specimen cannot be separated. The total deformation is a consequence of the superposition of internal and external state of stress.     

Effects of drying conditions, admixtures and specimen size on shrinkage strains

The paper presents the results of an experimental investigation on the effects of drying conditions, specimen size and presence of plasticizing admixture on the development of shrinkage strains. The measurements are taken in a harsh (50 °C and 5% R.H.) and a moderate environment (28 °C and 50% R.H.). The results include strain development at various levels of cross sections of concrete prisms. The drying conditions are found to be the dominant parameter affecting the shrinkage strain development particularly in specimens of smaller sizes. The effect of plasticizing admixture on shrinkage strains is negligible.     

Shrinkage and Deformation of Agave atrovirens Karw Tissue during Convective Drying: Influence of Structural Arrangements

The influence of structural arrangements of Agave discs cut transversally (ADCT) and longitudinally (ADCL) on moisture loss, shrinkage, and shape was evaluated during convective drying by physical and image parameters.

ADCT showed lower drying and shrinkage rates than ADCL. The fractal exponent (d) relating volume and thickness of samples rose from 1.552 ± 0.126 to 2.394 ± 0.128 and from 1.662 ± 0.111 to 1.848 ± 0.070 for ADCT and ADCL, respectively, which indicates that shrinkage was nonisotropic for both cases.

Parameters considered for evaluating the changes of size and shape of Agave discs at macro- and microscopic levels during drying were projected area (PA), major length (ML), shape factor (SF), and fractal dimension of contour (FD_C). The values obtained for these parameters demonstrated that changes in shrinkage and shape of both samples were dependent on structural arrangements of the samples. During the drying of ADCT samples, which have short and rigid structures, pronounced creasing was observed compared to ADCL materials, which are mainly formed by long and rigid structures. Also, it was observed that orientation of fibers influenced shrinkage and deformation.     

Mo-(Fe-B)-Fe混合粉末流延成型薄层坯体的干燥机理分析

流延成型Mo-(Fe-B)-Fe混合粉末流延成型薄层坯体的干燥过程非常重要，本文根据现有理论对流延坯体干燥过程的各个阶段，特别是坯体孔隙中充满液相的恒速干燥阶段（CRP）进行了分析。在恒速干燥阶段，产生了坯体的最大收缩和最大干燥应力，对引起干燥收缩的力和液相传输机制进行了分析。通过分析液相流动和固体网络之间的相互作用。可以计算孔隙液相中的压力分布。在靠近坯体干燥表面处，液相压力具有最大值，导致坯体在该处承受较大的压应力，并由此产生了不同大小的坯体收缩，从而引起干燥过程中的开裂现象，坯体开裂的可能性主要与坯体厚度和干燥速率有关，提出了避免干燥开裂的几个技术措施。     

A novel two-dimensional method to measure surface shrinkage in cementitious materials

A novel experimental technique, Cure Reference Method (CRM), was developed for the measurement of surface shrinkage in cementitious materials. The technique combines the replication of diffraction grating on a specimen during the curing process and the use of high-sensitivity moiré interferometry. Once demolded, the specimen was stored in an environmental chamber in order to establish specific curing conditions. Measurements were conducted on a daily basis for the duration of 7 days by recording a set of the consecutive phase shifted fringe patterns using the Portable Engineering Moiré interferometer II (PEMI II). An automated fringe analysis system was developed and used to obtain displacement and strain information in two dimenzsions. Surface shrinkage behavior in both cement paste and mortar specimens was investigated by the use of the technique under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. Furthermore, an experimental control was developed in an effort to remove the effects of drying shrinkage on cementitious specimens at early ages. This was done in an effort to explore the relative contribution of autogenous shrinkage to the overall shrinkage in cementitious materials.     

Improvement of kiwifruit drying using computer vision system (CVS) and ALM clustering method

The objective of this work was to improve kiwifruit drying with respect to quality. The drying of kiwifruit slices was studied with hot air drying (HAD) and hybrid hot air-infrared drying (HID) at 50, 60, and 70°C, air velocity of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5?m/s and thickness of 3, 5, and 7?mm using full factorial design. Shrinkage and color changes of kiwifruit slices were monitored in real time with a computer vision system (CVS). The drying treatments were ranked based on desirability function, using the combination of minimal color change, minimal shrinkage, and drying time as decision criteria. The proper conditions of kiwifruit drying were determined by average linkage method clustering as: temperature, 70°C; thickness, 3?mm; air velocity, 1.5?m/s (HAD) or 0.5?m/s (HID). Finally, a hybrid approach with HID at the first stage and HAD at the second stage of drying was proposed as a reasonable compromise between drying time and product quality.