A study on surface grinding of 300 mm silicon wafers

Most of today's IC chips are made from 200 mm or 150 mm silicon wafers. It is estimated that the transition from 200 mm to 300 mm wafers will bring a die cost saving of 30–40%. To meet their customers' needs, silicon wafer manufacturers are actively searching for cost-effective ways to manufacture 300 mm wafers with high quality. This paper presents the results of a study on surface grinding of 300 mm silicon wafers. In this study, a three-factor two-level full factorial design is employed to reveal the main effects as well as the interaction effects of three process parameters (wheel rotational speed, chuck rotational speed and feedrate). The process outputs studied include spindle motor current, surface roughness, grinding marks and depth of subsurface cracks.     

Microstructure studies of the grinding damage in monocrystalline silicon wafers

1. Introduction The monocrystalline silicon wafer, as an impor-tant substrate of the integrated circuit, is widely used in IC manufacturing. Various processes are needed to transfer a silicon crystal ingot into wafers. Silicon crystallizes in the diamond lattice, with covalent bonding, ensuring an extremely stable spatial ar-rangement of the Si atoms in the monocrystal. It is a brittle material. Most processes can induce me-chanical damage. The depth and nature of the sub-surface damage will…     

Fine grinding of silicon wafers

Silicon wafers are used for the production of most microchips. Various processes are needed to transfer a silicon crystal ingot into wafers. As one of such processes, surface grinding of silicon wafers has attracted attention among various investigators and a limited number of articles can be found in the literature. However, no published articles are available regarding fine grinding of silicon wafers. In this paper, the uniqueness and the special requirements of the silicon wafer fine grinding process are introduced first. Then some experimental results on the fine grinding of silicon wafers are presented and discussed. Tests on different grinding wheels demonstrate the importance of choosing the correct wheel and an illustration of the proper selection of process parameters is included. Also discussed are the effects of the nozzle position and the flow rate of the grinding coolant.     

Fine grinding of silicon wafers: designed experiments

Silicon wafers are the most widely used substrates for semiconductors. The falling price of silicon wafers has created tremendous pressure to develop cost-effective processes to manufacture silicon wafers. Fine grinding possesses great potential to reduce the overall cost for manufacturing silicon wafers. The uniqueness and the special requirements of fine grinding have been discussed in a paper published earlier in this journal. As a follow-up, this paper presents the results of a designed experimental investigation into fine grinding of silicon wafers. In this investigation, a three-variable two-level full factorial design is employed to reveal the main effects as well as the interaction effects of three process parameters (wheel rotational speed, chuck rotational speed and feed-rate). The process outputs studied include grinding force, spindle motor current, cycle time, surface roughness and grinding marks.     

Effect of grinding wheel spindle vibration on surface roughness and subsurface damage in brittle material grinding

The external interference and vibration can seriously affect the machining errors in brittle materials grinding process. This paper proposes a new model to analyze the relationship between surface roughness (SR) and subsurface damage (SSD) depth on the basis of grinding kinematics analysis and indentation fracture mechanics of brittle materials taking the wheel spindle vibration into account. The basic equations, for example, equations of grain trajectory and penetration depth are derived in new forms. Based on the basic equations above, the existing SR and SSD formulae are modified for further study. The effects of grinding and vibration parameters on SR and SSD are respectively analyzed in detail. Results show that both SR and SSD increase with the increase of table speed and vibration amplitude resulting in bad surface and subsurface quality. On the other hand, both the increasing grinding speed and decreasing vibration frequency can improve the quality of ground surface and subsurface with small SR and SSD. In addition, the increase of initial grinding depth and vibration initial phase increase the depth of SSD but have little effect on SR. The penetration depth and distance between grain's tip and finished surface are the two main factors considered to cause the different effect laws on SR and SSD among these parameters. Experiment is carried out to validate the rationality of proposed model. The effect trends of various grinding parameters on SR obtained by our model consist with measured experimental data. The typical subsurface crack system is clearly revealed through the experimental observation on SSD using SEM. Finally, the relationship between the two is fitted utilizing quadratic polynomial. Results show that the SSD depth is nonlinear monotone increasing with SR and the fitting accuracy is more or less affected by both grinding and vibration parameters.     

金刚石磨粒超声振动刻划BK7玻璃的亚表面损伤研究

针对光学玻璃磨削加工中出现的加工困难、工件表面质量较差以及工件内部损伤严重等问题,提出超声振动辅助加工方法对BK7玻璃进行刻划,研究超声振动功率、刻划速度和刻划深度对亚表面裂纹的影响规律。研究结果表明:超声刻划相比于普通刻划,亚表面裂纹深度最大下降了19.7%;随着刻划速度的增大,刻划后沟槽底部的亚表面裂纹最大深度逐渐增大;随着沟槽截取深度的增加,亚表面裂纹最大深度整体上呈逐渐上升的趋势并出现明显的分级情况。      

Grinding characteristics,material removal and damage formation mechanisms in high removal rate grinding of silicon carbide

Development of advanced ceramics such as silicon carbide has gained significant importance because of their desirable properties. However, their engineering applications are still limited owing to the limitations in developing damage-free and economical machining techniques. It is often desired to increase the machining rate to improve productivity while maintaining the desired surface integrity. The success of this approach, however, requires a fundamental understanding of the material removal and damage formation mechanism in grinding. In this paper, high removal rate grinding of silicon carbide was investigated with respect to material removal and basic grinding parameters using a diamond grinding wheel. The results showed that the material removal was primarily due to the microfracture and grain dislodgement under the grinding conditioned selected. For grain dislodgement removal mode, the relationship for the removal rate in scratching based on a simple fracture mechanics analysis has been established. This research provides valuable insights into the surface and subsurface integrity and material removal mechanism during high removal rate grinding of silicon carbide.     

Experimental investigation of surface/subsurface damage formation and material removal mechanisms in SiC grinding

The difficulty and cost involved in the abrasive machining of hard and brittle ceramics are among the major impediments to the widespread use of advanced ceramics in industries these days. It is often desired to increase the machining rate while maintaining the desired surface integrity. The success of this approach, however, relies in the understanding of mechanism of material removal on the microstructural scale and the relationship between the grinding characteristics and formation of surface/subsurface machining-induced damage. In this paper, grinding characteristics, surface integrity and material removal mechanisms of SiC ground with diamond wheel on surface grinding machine have been investigated. The surface and subsurface damages have been studied with scanning electron microscope (SEM). The effects of grinding conditions on surface/subsurface damage have been discussed. This research links the surface roughness, surface and subsurface damages to grinding parameters and provides valuable insights into the material removal mechanism and the dependence of grinding-induced damage on grinding conditions.     

Investigation of grinding modes in horizontal surface grinding of optical glass BK7

Grinding is one of the most important processes to manufacture hard-brittle materials such as optical glass. It is often desired to increase the material removal rate while maintaining the desired surface quality. The success of this approach relies on the better understanding of the relationship between the grinding modes and the characteristics of surface and subsurface integrities. Based on the kinematic analysis of horizontal surface grinding as well as the features of grinding-induced cracks, four grinding modes were proposed. They are brittle mode, semi-brittle mode, semi-ductile mode and ductile mode. The horizontal surface grinding of optical glass BK7 has been studied using diamond grinding wheel. The four different grinding modes have been investigated with the characteristics of surface morphologies before and after etching, surface roughness, subsurface damages as well as indentation depth. It was found that the level of surface roughness and depth of subsurface damage were strongly dependent on grinding mode. This study provides valuable insights into the material removal mechanism and the dependence of surface and subsurface integrities on grinding mode.     

C/SiC复合材料磨削的表面/亚表面损伤

采用树脂结合剂金刚石砂轮对二维正交编织结构C/SiC复合材料进行了平面磨削加工实验。通过对磨削加工表面形貌、磨削表面中碳纤维区域的粗糙度、磨削亚表面形貌的分析与测量,对C/SiC复合材料磨削表面/亚表面损伤进行了研究。结果表明:磨削表面中碳纤维损伤形式以阶梯状脆性断裂为主。对于编织方向平行于进给速度方向的纤维区域,脆性断裂尺寸、表面粗糙度受工艺参数影响较小;而对于编织方向垂直于进给速度方向的纤维区域,脆性断裂尺寸、表面粗糙度随进给速度增大无明显变化,但随磨削深度增大而明显增大。碳纤维区域亚表面损伤形式主要为阶梯状脆性断裂,而SiC区域亚表面损伤形式主要为脆性断裂及微裂纹,且损伤程度在实验参数范围内无明显差异。     

Fine grinding of silicon wafers: effects of chuck shape on grinding marks

Silicon wafers are used for production of most microchips. Various processes are needed to transfer a silicon ingot into wafers. With continuing shrinkage of feature sizes of microchips, more stringent requirement is imposed on wafer flatness. Fine grinding of silicon wafers is a patented technology to produce super flat wafers at a low cost. Six papers on fine grinding were previously published in this journal. The first paper discussed its uniqueness and special requirements. The second one presented the results of a designed experimental investigation. The third and fourth papers presented the mathematical models for the chuck shape and the grinding marks, respectively. The fifth paper developed a mathematical model for the wafer shape and the sixth paper studied machine configurations for spindle angle adjustments. This paper is a follow up of the above-mentioned work. A mathematical model to predict the depth of grinding marks for any chuck shape will be first developed. With the developed model, effects of the chuck shape (as well as the wheel radius) on the depth of grinding marks will be studied. Finally, results of pilot experiments to verify the model will be discussed.     

基于磨削速度的K9光学玻璃平面磨削亚表面裂纹深度研究

根据磨削参数协同分析的结果,在保证磨粒运动轨迹一致的情况下,进行基于磨削速度的单因素平面磨削实验。利用试件角度抛光、SEM检测亚表面裂纹层的深度。实验结果显示:随着砂轮转速的提高,亚表面裂纹层的深度呈下降趋势;当砂轮转速从500 r/min逐渐提高到2500 r/min时,亚表面裂纹层的最大深度的平均值下降达25 μm左右;光学玻璃平面磨削实验结果表明,光学玻璃磨削磨削速度是影响磨削过程中光学玻璃材料亚表面裂纹层深度的重要因素,磨削速度对光学玻璃亚表面裂纹生成有重要影响。      

An experimental study of flat fixed abrasive grinding of silicon wafers using resin-bonded diamond pellets

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of the diamond grain size, the wheel rotation speed, the table rotation speed, and the applied pressure in the vertical flat grinding on the surface roughness of silicon wafers using Taguchi orthogonal array design. Besides, the pits and resistivity on the wafers were studied as well. The experiment results showed that the diamond grain size and the wheel rotation speed of the vertical flat grinding for the roughness of wafers obtained are the relatively larger significant contribution. When the smaller diamond grit size, the faster wheel rotation speed, the faster table rotation speed, and the smaller applied pressure in the flat grinding are employed, the traces produced by the grains are denser and the chip thickness and the depth of cut were smaller, which cause the silicon wafer to produce the higher degree of the ductile grinding. This will lead the wafer surface to produce the smaller amount and size of the pits, thereby generating the lower surface roughness. In addition, the center site of the wafer obtained is the smaller amount and size of the pits than the outer of the wafer, which produces the better surface roughness and the lower resistivity.     

Grinding wheels for manufacturing of silicon wafers: A literature review

Grinding is an important process for manufacturing of silicon wafers. The demand for silicon wafers with better quality and lower price presents tremendous challenges for the grinding wheels used in the silicon wafer industry. The stringent requirements for these grinding wheels include low damage on ground surfaces, self-dressing ability, consistent performance, long wheel lives, and low prices. This paper presents a literature review on grinding wheels for manufacturing of silicon wafers. It discusses recent development in abrasives, bond materials, porosity formation, and geometry design of the grinding wheels to meet the stringent requirements.     

Precision grinding of optical glass with laser micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheels

This paper presents a series of micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheels for optical glass surface grinding aiming to improve the grinding performance, especially subsurface damage. The 150 μm grit size, single layer electroplated diamond grinding wheels with different interval micro-groove arrays were manufactured by nanosecond pulsed laser, successfully. The influence of micro-structures on surface roughness and subsurface damage was investigated. Compared with conventional coarse-grained diamond wheel, the subsurface damage depth was reduced effectually from 5 to 1.5 μm, although the better surface roughness was not obtained by the micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheel. In addition, the surface roughness and subsurface damage depth were both reduced with the decreasing interval of micro-groove arrays.     

Surface and subsurface integrity in diamond grinding of optical glasses on Tetraform ‘C’

In order to investigate the surface and subsurface integrity of diamond-ground optical glasses, a Tetraform ‘C’ machine tool featuring high close-loop stiffness was used to conduct the ultra-precision machining of fused silica and fused quartz assisted with electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID). An acoustic emission (AE) sensor and a piezoelectric dynamometer were used to monitor the grinding process to correlate the processing characteristics with the generated surface and subsurface integrities, which were characterized by atomic force microscope (AFM), scanning electronic microscope (SEM), and nano-indentation technique. Experimental results showed that for optical glasses the fracture toughness value can be used to predict the machinability while its bigger value always means a better surface and subsurface integrity. During the grinding process of optical glasses, the smaller amplitude and RMS values of AE signal, as well as the smaller grinding forces and the ratio of normal force to tangential force, correspond to a better surface and subsurface integrity. With selected machining parameters and a 6–12 μm grain-sized diamond-grinding wheel, nanometric quality surfaces (Ra<5 nm) with minimal subsurface damage depth (< 0.5 μm) can be generated for fused quartz on Tetraform ‘C’.     

磨削速度和压力对单晶硅去除特性的影响

为研究单晶硅磨削损伤,使用金刚石磨块在不同磨削速度和压力下对单晶硅表面进行高速划擦试验,金刚石的粒度尺寸为38~45 μm。通过测量硅片表面粗糙度、亚表面损伤深度和材料去除率,研究磨块的磨削速度和压力对材料去除特性的影响规律。结果表明:相同压力时,材料去除率随磨削速度增加呈先增大后减小的趋势,亚表面损伤深度逐渐变小;随法向压力增大,亚表面损伤深度变化不明显;在5N压力下,表面粗糙度值R_a变化明显,由6.4 μm减小到3.2 μm;而10 N压力下,R_a无明显变化。      

金刚石砂轮磨削单晶硅片面形变化规律

磨削减薄过程中,硅片表面产生亚表面损伤,其中的残余应力使硅片产生翘曲变形。因此,研究无光磨磨削时的硅片面形变化规律以评价其加工质量。使用金刚石砂轮无光磨磨削厚度400μm和450μm的硅片并测量其面形。将硅片面形数据从中心向边缘沿径向分割成5个环带,分别研究其面形拟合弯曲曲率半径变化。结果显示:从中心区域到边缘区域,硅片的变形量增大,说明无光磨硅片上的残余应力变大,即磨削加工损伤增大。同时,研究还发现晶向对硅片变形有显著影响,〈110〉晶向区变形与〈100〉晶向区变形差异明显。      

单晶硅磨抛协同加工的分子动力学

磨削与抛光是实现单晶硅材料超精密表面加工的重要工艺方法,磨抛协同加工过程中由磨粒运动状态主导的二体与三体磨损机制对材料去除效率以及表面加工质量具有重要影响。采用分子动力学方法,建立固结与游离运动状态双磨粒协同作用下的单晶硅表面超精密磨抛加工过程仿真模型,分析磨粒切入深度、横向与纵向间距干涉等因素对磨削力、材料相变、表面损伤及材料去除行为的影响规律,阐释单晶硅磨抛协同超精密加工表面形貌演化规律。研究表明：受磨粒运动状态驱动的单晶硅材料表层损伤原子数量随固结及游离磨粒切入深度增大而增加,磨粒切入深度对工件的材料去除、裂纹生长及损伤行为影响显著;法向和切向磨削力随磨粒切入深度增加而增大,且在同等切入深度变化时法向磨削力增加幅度大于切向磨削力; 通过单晶硅金刚石结构分析磨粒间干涉区域的损伤情况可知,随着磨粒间纵向间距增加时,工件所受干涉作用减小,六角金刚石晶体结构减少;相比较固结磨粒,游离磨粒对工件的损伤区域更深,产生瞬态缺陷原子更多。研究结果可为实现超精密磨抛协同加工工艺高材料去除效率和高表面质量提供理论基础。     

Application potential of coarse-grained diamond grinding wheels for precision grinding of optical materials

Fine-grained resin bonded diamond tools are often used for ultra-precision machining of brittle materials to achieve optical surfaces. A well-known drawback is the high tool wear. Therefore, grinding processes need to be developed exhibiting less wear and higher profitability. Consequently, the presented work focuses on conditioning a mono-layered, coarse-grained diamond grinding wheel with a spherical profile and an average grain size of 301 µm by combining a thermo-chemical and a mechanical-abrasive dressing technique. This processing leads to a run-out error of the grinding wheel in a low-micrometer range. Additionally, the thermo-chemical dressing leads to flattened grains, which supports the generation of hydrostatic pressure in the cutting zone and enables ductile-mode grinding of hard and brittle materials. After dressing, the application characteristics of coarse-grained diamond grinding wheels were examined by grinding optical glasses, fused silica and glass–ceramics in two different kinematics, plunge-cut surface grinding and cross grinding. For plunge-cut surface grinding, a critical depth of cut and surface roughness were determined and for cross-grinding experiments the subsurface damage was analyzed additionally. Finally, the identified parameters for ductile-machining with coarse-grained diamond grinding wheels were used for grinding a surface of 2000 mm² in glass–ceramics.