金属材料冲裁过程的有限元模拟

介绍了利用弹性有限元对金属冲裁加工模拟的基本原理,包括弹塑性大变形木匠,裂破坏模拟以及网格重划分等技术,利用商业化有限元程度DEFORM－2D^TM对不锈钢（AISI304）板料的冲裁工艺进行了模拟,模具采用刚体模型,工件采用弹塑性模型,材料断裂破坏采用Cockroft-Latham破坏准则,分析了冲裁过程中裂纹生成、扩展以及材料断裂分离的过程,冲载力的变化等,模拟结果中的材料断裂和冲裁力的变化与已发表文献中的实验结果一致。     

基于局部法评定TBCs/Q345涂层界面断裂行为

通过对涂层试样进行拉伸试验得到界面断裂时的临界载荷．采用ABAQUS有限元软件模拟了涂层试样的断裂行为．推导了基于统计学思想的局部法用于界面断裂的理论公式,通过编制Fortran程序求出影响界面断裂的威布尔参数．采用局部法分析了涂层界面断裂行为对试样缺陷尺寸的依赖性．发现临界威布尔应力与试样尺寸和加载形式无关,不同缺陷尺寸的试样发生界面断裂时,在相同断裂概率下其威布尔应力基本相同,并基于局部法通过预制裂纹试样的试验结果成功预测了另一种裂纹尺寸试样的断裂数据分布,说明局部法可以用来描述涂层界面的断裂行为,并用于界面完整性评定中．     

Deformation behaviour of closed-cell aluminium foams in tension

The mechanical behaviour of commercially available ALPORAS aluminium foam with two different densities was studied under tension loading. In addition to the common stress–strain measurements, local deformation, notch-opening displacement and damage evolution were determined. The deformation characteristics deviated from those observed in aluminium foams under compression. No deformation bands or plastic instabilities could be observed in tension, which are very frequent in compression of metallic foams. Four regimes were evident in the stress–strain curves and deformation maps: the linear elastic regime, the plastic regime with no significant crack initiation and propagation, the regime of formation of a fracture process zone and, finally, the regime of fracture, where a main crack propagates through the specimen and leads to failure. The fracture strain was only a few per cent, with the higher-density foam showing a larger fracture strain, and the plastic Poisson's ratio was about 0.35. The notched specimens showed increasing fracture strengths in terms of the net section stress with increasing notch depth. It is suggested that a change in stress state, caused by a non-vanishing Poisson's ratio, in front of the notch tip creates an increase of the fracture strength similar to the behaviour in ductile bulk metals.     

基于损伤力学的粉末高温合金FGH96疲劳寿命预测

以粉末高温合金FGH96为研究对象,提出采用损伤力学理论来建立寿命预测模型。对于不同夹杂物特征,粉末高温合金裂纹萌生有不同的表征参量,其数值变化为裂纹萌生的寿命预测提供思路。对粉末高温合金寿命预测的研究现状进行分析,然后利用损伤演变方程建立寿命预测模型;使用有限元软件（ANSYS）分别模拟夹杂物的不同位置、不同尺寸以及不同形状对裂纹萌生的影响,得到相应的损伤参量分布云图。将得到的损伤参量代入计算模型,得到疲劳寿命计算结果,与实验结果进行对比,证明疲劳寿命预测模型的有效性。结果表明:损伤参量Y能较好地表征材料的低周疲劳损伤;在不同的实验条件（温度、应变范围和应变比）下,所建立的粉末合金FGH96疲劳寿命预测模型都能较好地反映夹杂物对粉末高温合金疲劳寿命的影响。     

Crack Repair in Aerospace Aluminum Alloy Panels by Cold Spray

The cold-spray process has recently been recognized as a very useful tool for repairing metallic sheets, achieving desired adhesion strengths when employing optimal combinations of material process parameters. We present herein the possibility of repairing cracks in aluminum sheets by cold spray. A 2099 aluminum alloy panel with a surface 30° V notch was repaired by cold spraying of 2198 and 7075 aluminum alloy powders. The crack behavior of V-notched sheets subjected to bending loading was studied by finite-element modeling (FEM) and mechanical experiments. The simulations and mechanical results showed good agreement, revealing a remarkable K factor reduction, and a consequent reduction in crack nucleation and growth velocity. The results enable prediction of the failure initiation locus in the case of repaired panels subjected to bending loading and deformation. The stress concentration was quantified to show how the residual stress field and failure are affected by the mechanical properties of the sprayed materials and by the geometrical and mechanical properties of the interface. It was demonstrated that the crack resistance increases more than sevenfold in the case of repair using AA2198 and that cold-spray repair can contribute to increased global fatigue life of cracked structures.     

On Modeling Hydrogen-Induced Crack Propagation Under Sustained Load

The failure of hydrogen containment components is generally associated with subcritical cracking. Understanding subcritical crack growth behavior and its dependence on material and environmental variables can lead to methods for designing structural components in a hydrogen environment and will be beneficial in developing materials resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. In order to identify the issues underlying crack propagation and arrest, we present a model for hydrogen-induced stress-controlled crack propagation under sustained loading. The model is based on the assumptions that (I) hydrogen reduces the material fracture strength and (II) crack propagation takes place when the opening stress over the characteristic distance ahead of a crack tip is greater than the local fracture strength. The model is used in a finite-element simulation of crack propagation coupled with simultaneous hydrogen diffusion in a model material through nodal release. The numerical simulations show that the same physics, i.e., diffusion-controlled crack propagation, can explain the existence of both stages I and II in the velocity versus stress intensity factor (V–K) curve.     

Fracture behavior at crack tip — a new framework for cleavage mechanism of steel

The fracture behavior at crack tip was analyzed based on: (1) observations of fracture surfaces and measurements of local critical parameters for cleavage of three point bending (3PB) precracked specimens of C-Mn steel, (2) detailed observations of configuration changes at precrack tips by metallographic cross sections in specimens unloaded at various applied loads, (3) sophisticated FEM calculations of distributions of stress, strain and triaxiality and simulations of short cracks initiated and extended at precrack tips. The results show that before a critical load (a critical COD) is reached, the crack tip is only blunted and in its vicinity three criteria for cleavage fracture (ϵ_p≥ϵ_pc for initiating a crack nucleus; σ_m/σ_e≥T_c for preventing the crack tip from blunting; and σ_yy≥σ_f for propagating the crack) are satisfied in different regions separated from each other, the nucleated cracks cannot be propagated and cleavage fracture cannot be triggered. As the applied load increases higher than this critical load, a short crack is initiated and extended at the precrack tip and then is blunted again. The plastic strain and the stress in front of the precrack are redistributed. While the plastic strain remains in front of the tip, the stress triaxiality is rebuilt. At a second critical load, the regions where the three criteria are satisfied overlap each other and a cleavage crack can be nucleated and propagated. The minimum distance for cleavage may be determined by the beginning of the overlapping of the mentioned regions. Combined with the three criteria previously suggested, the fracture behavior at crack tip and the corresponding changes of driving forces (ϵ_p, σ_m/σ_e,σ_yy) provide a complete physical model for cleavage of steels in the local scale.     

On the role of martensitic transformation on damage and cracking resistance in TRIP-assisted multiphase steels

The damage resistance, fracture toughness and austenite transformation rate in transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP)-assisted multiphase steel sheets were comparatively characterised on two steel grades differing by the volume fractions of the phases (i.e. ferrite, bainite, retained austenite) and by the mechanical stability of retained austenite. The influence of stress triaxiality on austenite transformation kinetics and the coupling between martensitic transformation and damage were investigated using double edge notched (or cracked) plate specimens tested in tension. The map of the distribution of transformation rates measured locally around the notch (or the crack) was compared with the map of the effective plastic strains and stress triaxialities computed by finite element simulations of the tests. The mechanically-activated martensitic transformation was found to progress continuously with plastic straining and to be strongly influenced by stress triaxiality. Fracture resistance was characterised by means of J_R curves and CTOD measurements using DENT specimens. The fracture toughness at cracking initiation was found to be lower for the steel with higher tensile strength and ductility. The contrasted influence of the TRIP effect, which improves formability by delaying plastic localisation but reduces fracture toughness at cracking initiation, is shown to result from parameters such as the volume fraction of non-intercritical ferrite phases or the mechanical properties of martensite.     

含铸造微孔镍基单晶合金蠕变损伤和裂纹萌生的模拟计算

基于镍基单晶合金蠕变变形过程中的细、微观组织结构变化及损伤特点,建立了考虑材质劣化和孔洞损伤的双参数蠕变损伤本构方程。利用所建模型对裂纹前缘含铸造缺陷（孔洞）的镍基单晶合金紧凑拉伸（CT）试样蠕变损伤和裂纹萌生进行了模拟计算,并考虑了晶体取向偏差和随机性的影响。计算结果表明：晶体取向和孔洞位置对试样蠕变损伤和裂纹萌生行为有着显著的影响。当孔洞距切口根部距离较近时,裂纹形核于切口附近的孔洞表面,裂纹形核时间较短;孔洞距切口根部距离较远时,裂纹形核位置位于切口表面,具体位置取决于试样的晶体取向,裂纹形核时间较长。随着加载轴晶体取向偏角的增大,裂纹形核时间明显缩短,其分散性加大,最大有34.7%的变化幅度;试样在2个不受控的晶体取向变化时,在偏角为45°和80°出现极值,裂纹形核时间最大偏差达3倍。     

An experimental investigation of constraint effects on mixed mode fracture initiation in a ductile aluminium alloy

The effect of constraint on ductile fracture initiation from a notch tip under mode I and mixed mode (involving modes I and II) loading is investigated. To this end, mixed mode fracture experiments are performed with Compact Tension Shear (or CTS) specimen of a ductile 2014-O aluminium alloy. The constraint effects are investigated by considering specimens with two crack length to width ratios. The effect of crack tip constraint on the relationship between the critical value of the J-integral at fracture initiation (J_c) and M_p is examined. Further, the micromechanics of mixed mode ductile fracture initiation is investigated by performing fractographic studies and metallographic examination of the mid-plane region of the specimen near the notch tip.     

Crack initiation model for sensitized 304 stainless steel in high temperature water

To investigate the initiation behavior of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) for sensitized Type 304 stainless steel in high temperature water, a constant load SCC test method combined with in situ crack observation technique was employed. The in situ crack observation system allowed us to detect small cracks of at least 100 μm. As a result, a fracture time decreased with an increase in an applied stress. The first cracks were observed at most 3 h before the specimen was fractured under all the stress conditions. After that, many cracks were initiated in a short time to fracture. The fracture was caused by coalescence of multiple cracks rather than by growth of some primary cracks. The simulation model for surface crack initiation was newly developed using a Monte Carlo method, which was based on damage mechanics and stress analysis around the existing cracks. The simulation could represent the empirical results of changes in the crack distribution and the cumulative number of cracks during the SCC tests. It was concluded, therefore, that the crack initiation process should be considered in simulating the life prediction of the material in this SCC system.     

Fatigue behaviour of bolted joints

This paper analyzes the tensile fatigue behaviour of bolted joints constituted by commercial steel bolts. They were tested under both monotonic and fatigue tensile loading, with different R-ratio. Results show that under increasing monotonic tensile loading the bolted joint is not the failure zone of the bolt, whereas such a bolted joint is the failure region under cyclic loading. The fatigue life decreases with the increase of the stress range and with the maximum stress, and pre-loading enlarges the fatigue life. Fatigue fracture surface shows a geometry of crescent moon in the case of short cracks and such a shape evolves towards a quasi-straight crack front in the case of long cracks. Fatigue fracture usually happens at the root of the first notch inside the bolted joint, although fracture initiation may happen in several consecutive notch roots, increasing the initiation angle of the fatigue crack as the applied stress diminishes.     

钛合金热变形过程中裂纹缺陷的预测

基于连续损伤力学(CDM)理论,同时考虑包括温度和应变速率在内的变形历史影响,建立TC11钛合金热变形过程中的损伤演化方程,提出宏观裂纹预测的断裂准则,并采用高温拉伸试验确定方程和准则中的参数。将提出的方法用于TC11合金热压缩变形过程中的数值模拟,模拟结果同实验结果的对比表明该方法可以很好地预测合金在热变形过程中裂纹的起裂和裂纹的扩展行为。     

Quantification of creep cavitation damage around a crack in a stainless steel pressure vessel

In this paper, metallographic sectioning and non-destructive small angle neutron scattering (SANS) are used to map the level of creep cavitation around a surface breaking crack in a stainless steel pressure vessel. The cracking developed during 65,000 h service at an operating temperature of around 525 °C and was promoted by the accumulation of creep strain resulting from relaxation of tensile residual stresses associated with a nozzle attachment weld. The distribution and evolution of the cavities is discussed in terms of existing models of creep cavitation failure based on a ductility exhaustion model in which the corresponding multi-axial creep ductility, expressed as the von Mises strain at failure, is a function of the strain rate and stress state. An empirical approach has been adopted for describing the effects of stress state on ductility, which takes into account cavity nucleation as well as cavity growth by creep deformation, and is similar to local approach models for ductile crack growth. Crack initiation is conceded when the creep damage parameter D_c⩾1. The measured creep cavitation results are found to be in reasonable accordance with such a model.     

Toughness of aluminium alloy foams

The fracture behaviour of closed cell aluminium-based foams (trade-name “Alulight”) is characterized for the compositions Al–Mg1–Si0.6 and Al–Mg1–Si10 (wt%), and for a relative density in the range 0.1–0.4. The toughness testing procedures are critically analysed, and the origins of the observed R-curve behaviour for metal foams are explored. A major contribution to the observed increasing crack growth resistance with crack advance is in the development of a crack bridging zone behind the crack tip. The crack bridging response is quantified in terms of a crack traction vs extra displacement curve by performing independent tests on deep notch specimens. The area under the bridging traction vs extra displacement curve from the deep notch tests is approximately equal to the measured initiation toughness J_IC, in support of the crack bridging concept. A line spring model is then used to interpret the fracture response. The effect of material composition and relative density upon the initiation toughness is measured, and the accuracy of an existing micromechanical model for the fracture toughness of a brittle foam is assessed. Finally, the reduction in tensile and compressive strengths due to the presence of an open hole is determined; it is found that the Alulight foams are notch-insensitive, with the net section strength equal to the unnotched strength.     

Transverse fracture in thin-film coatings under spherical indentation

The competition between transverse surface and sub-surface cracks in a thin, hard coating bonded to polycarbonate substrate due to spherical indentation is investigated in real-time as a function of coating thickness and indenter radius. Fine grain (Y-TZP) and medium grain (alumina) ceramics and pre-abraded amorphous glass are used for the coating. As the coating thickness is reduced, the familiar star-shape sub-surface damage is suppressed, resulting in the top-surface ring crack as the dominant fracture mode. In the intermediate thickness range, the sub-surface damage occurs as a set of off-axis cracks. LEFM in conjunction of a large-strain FEM contact code is used to predict the onset of transverse fracture in the coating. Guided by the test results, the damage on both coating surfaces is assumed as a cylindrical surface crack. In consistency with their polycrystalline nature, the coatings are assumed to contain a distribution of cracks, with the least fracture load among all possible crack lengths taken as the critical load. The numerical predictions compare well with the tests results, and they help identify the applicability range of the simpler point loading case as well as a fracture analysis that is based on a critical stress criterion in terms of the system parameters.     

Fracture behaviour and numerical study of resistance spot welded joints in high-strength steel sheet

Cross tension tests of resistance spot welded joints with varying nugget diameter were carried out using 980 MPa high strength steel sheet of 1.6 mm thickness. In proportion, as nugget diameter increased from 3√t to 5√t (where t is thickness), cross tension strength (CTS) increased while fracture morphology simultaneously transferred from interface fracture to full plug fracture. In cases of interface fracture, circumferential crack initiation due to separation of the corona bond arose at an early stage of loading. The crack opening process without propagation was recognized until just before fracture and then the crack propagated to the nugget immediately in a brittle manner around CTS. In full plug fracture, main ductile crack initiation from the notch-like part at the end of sheet separation occurred with the sub-crack initiated at an early stage. The ductile crack propagated toward the HAZ and base material to form full plug fracture. The mode I stress intensity factor was considered as a suitable fracture parameter because the circumferential crack behaved pre-crack for brittle fracture in the nugget region at the final stage. Based on the FE analysis, the mode I stress intensity factor was calculated as 116 MPa √m at CTS as fracture toughness for the nugget. With respect to full plug fracture, ductile crack initiation behaviour from the notch-like part was expressed by concentration of equivalent plastic strain. On the assumption that the ductile crack arose in critical value of equivalent plastic strain, the value was calculated as 0.34 by FE analysis. Reasonable interpretation for interface fracture and full plug fracture in the resistance spot welded joint was proposed due to first crack initiation by stress concentration, brittle fracture by using mode I stress intensity factor, and ductile crack initiation by using equivalent plastic strain.     

Study on ductile crack initiation limit from notch root of pipeline girth welded joints with strength mismatch

This study investigated ductile crack initiation limit of pipeline girth welded joints with different strength mismatches. The ductile crack initiation limit for the girth welded joints was evaluated by conducting three-point bending fracture toughness tests and wide plate tensile tests with a surface notch. In addition, effect of heat input on the ductile crack initiation limit of weld metal (WM) was evaluated on the assumption that a welding condition would be varied in the field in the actual pipeline construction. As the results, the equivalent plastic strain at the notch tip for the ductile crack initiation of the three-point bending tests was consistent with those of the wide plate tests, and the heat input hardly affected the ductile crack initiation limit within the range of this study. This meant that the ductile crack initiation limit of the pipeline girth welded joints with strength mis-match was able to be estimated using the equivalent plastic strain obtained from the three-point bending tests. Based on these results, we proposed a procedure to determine the rational fracture toughness requirements which took into account the difference in the plastic constraint between standard fracture toughness test and pipeline girth welded joints. This procedure was also possible to determine the required strength matching level for a strain-based design for girth welded joint containing surface notch in the centre of the WM in terms of preventing the ductile crack initiation.     

Mn18Cr18N钢热锻过程中损伤的研究

通过分析热拉伸中空洞萌生、长大、聚合现象给出了空洞萌生应变和断裂应变的选取方法。采用热拉伸和有限元模拟相结合的方法给出了Mn18Cr18N钢韧性断裂温度区间内损伤临界值。对比热锻物理试验与有限元预报中空洞萌生和断裂发生的时机,结果发现:C+L准则预报结果与热锻试验中损伤的发生具有较高的一致性,而作为对照所选择的R+T准则对损伤过程的预报与试验结果偏差较大。     

NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE NOTCH EFFECT ON THE CREEP BEHAVIOR AND LIFE OF NICKEL-BASE SINGLE CRYSTAL SUPERALLOYS

Numerical calculations of creep damage development and life behavior of circular notched specimens of nickel-base single crystal had been performed. The creep stress distributions depend on the specimen geometry. For a small notch radius, von Mises stress has an especial distribution. The damage distribution is greatly influenced by the notch depth, notch radius as well as notch type. The creep crack initiation place is different for each notched specimen. The characteristics of notch strengthening and notch weakening depend on the notch radius and notch type. For the same notch type, the creep rupture lives decrease with the decreasing of notch radius. A creep life model has been presented for the multiaxial stress states based on the crystallographic slip system theory.